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De Atlas Etnográfico de Vasconia
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I. OMENS OF DEATH

Animal-related omens

Dog howling

Rooster crowing

Behaviour of livestock and cats

Screeching or presence of night birds

Presence of crows and other birds

Presence of insects

Omens related with facts and events

Bells tolling

Paying, measuring or weighing just enough

Noises and other coincidences

Omens resulting from the act of dying

 

II. DEATH THROES AND DEATH

Death throes

Names

Physical signs of death throes

Death knells

Caring for the person in their dying moments

    • Care and attention
    • Visiting the dying person
    • Watching over the person in their dying moments
    • Contemporary changes

Prayers during the death throes

Other religious practices

Causes for the death throes dragging on

    • Feuds and grievances
    • Possessed by spirits

Remedies to stop the death throes dragging on

    • Mass for the dying
    • Light offering and fasts
    • Facilitating the exiting of the soul

Death

Names

Physical causes of death

Extraordinary causes of death

    • Spells
    • Evil eye
    • Death spirits

Replacing death

 

III. VIATICUM AND ANOINTING

Christian rites of the passage from life to death

Names

Receiving the Last Rites

Notifying the priest and doctor

Preparing the room of the sick person

    • Home altar
    • Decorating the house

Viaticum

    • Viaticum in the Northern Basque Country
    • Viaticum in Navarre
    • Viaticum in Gipuzkoa
    • Viaticum in Bizkaia
    • Viaticum in Álava

Anointing

Appendix 1: Last Rites in Mendive (BN)

Appendix 2: Administration of Viaticum and Anointing according to the old Roman Ritual

 

IV. BELIEFS ABOUT THE SOUL’S DESTINY

Separation of the soul and body

Signs of salvation or damnation

Countenance of the corpse

Signs of nature

Problems when removing the coffin from the house

Incorrupt bodies

Practices to ensure salvation

 

V. HOUSEHOLD MOURNING AND HELP FROM NEIGHBOURS

Signs of mourning of the bereaved household

Covering mirrors

Concealing other belongings

Covering walls

Closing windows

Signs of mourning outside the house

Role of neighbours during the mourning period

The neighbourhood and neighbours with regard to the bereaved household

    • Organisation of the neighbourhood hierarchy
    • The first or nearest neighbour
    • Reconciliation and friendship between neighbours

Help provided by neighbours

    • Household chores and tasks
    • Primacy of family support
    • Customarily established help

The parish cross in the bereaved household

Appendix: Role of neighbours during funeral rites in Ossès/Ortzaize (BN)

 

VI. NOTIFYING THE DEATH

Notifications

Recipients of the notification

Death announcers

    • Relatives and neighbours
    • First neighbours
    • Youths
    • Female announcers
    • Messengers and auroros choirs

Contemporary transitions

Bell-ringing

Names

Time of the death knell

Person in charge of ringing the bells

Language of the tolling of the bells

    • Religious status and sex differences
    • Death knell for children
    • Social categories

Validity of the death knells

Death knells in chapels

Burial bell tolls

Death notices

Newspaper death notices

Street death notices

Antiquity of the death notices

Radio death notices

Memorials

Telling domesticated animals of the death

Telling the bees

    • Survival of the beehive
    • Producing more wax
    • Requesting wax and avoiding the death of the bees
    • Death of the owner
    • New owner
    • Signs of mourning

Telling the barn animals

 

VII. SHROUD

Death and act of closing the eyelids

Washing and shrouding

Ways of washing the corpse

Cleansing the corpse

Arranging the hands and feet

Salt on the corpse

The shroud and its types

    • Cloth shroud
    • Religious habits
    • Festive garments

Objects that accompany the corpse

Pious symbols

Death indulgences

Secular objects

Burning herbs

 

VIII. THE WAKE. GAUBELA

The wake

Daytime vigil

Reciting the rosary at dusk

Night-time vigil

    • Names
    • The wake in the Northern Basque Country
    • The wake in the Southern Basque Country
    • Looking after the lamp
    • Meals during the wake

Validity of the wake

The room with the deceased

Cross

Light

Holy water

Laying out the corpse

The corpse on the death bed

The corpse in the main room

In the death chamber

The coffin. Hilkutxa

Names

Making the coffin

Classes and types of coffins

Duties of the carpenter

Trolleys and stretchers

Burning the pallet

 

IX. CORPSE WAYS. HILBIDEAK

Names

Corpse ways in localities with a scattered population

Southern Basque Country

Northern Basque Country

Corpse ways in charter towns with a rural population

Corpse ways in localities with a concentrated population

The paths of the parish cross and the Viaticum

Upkeep of the corpse ways

Legal significance of the corpse ways

 

X. TAKING THE CORPSE TO CHURCH

The bearers

Names

Neighbours as bearers

    • Northern Basque Country
    • Southern Basque Country

Youth bearers in Álava

Relatives and neighbours as bearers

Friends and relatives as bearers

Bearers nominated by the dying person

Orientation of the corpse

Developments in the ways to transport the corpse

Taking turns in bearing the corpse

Removal of the corpse

Southern Basque Country

Northern Basque Country

Hospitality house

Mother house or of the patron saint

 

XI. THE FUNERAL CORTEGE

Composition of the funeral cortege

Names

Head of the procession

The funeral cortege in Álava

The funeral cortege in Bizkaia

The funeral cortege in Gipuzkoa

The funeral cortege in Navarre

The funeral cortege in the Northern Basque Country

Brotherhoods and Associations in the cortege

Prayers and songs during the bearing of the corpse

Stops of the funeral cortege

The funeral cortege today

A child's burial

Names

Northern Basque Country

Southern Basque Country

The godparents at a child's burial

A youth's burial

The mourners

Historical documentation

Ethnographic sources

Crying and wailing

 

XII. ATTIRE IN THE FUNERAL CORTEGE

Old mourning attire

The cape

The shawl

Traditional men's attire

Traditional women's attire

Attire of the relative and neighbours

Bereavement dress today

 

XIII. OFFERING BEARERS IN THE CORTEGE

The offering bearer. Names

The bread offering-bearer

The light offering-bearer

Cortege animal offerings in the past

Floral wreaths and flowers in the funeral cortege

Flowers at the start of the century

Artificial wreaths and flowers

Homemade crosses and wreaths

Prevalence of flowers and wreaths

Attributed meanings

Position in the cortege

 

XIV. OBSEQUIES. HILETAK

The corpse during the obsequies

The coffin in the gateway

Burial prior to the funeral service

The catafalque or burial mound

The funeral with the body present

Arrangement of the family mourners in the church

Male mourners

Family mourners

Family mourners today

The funeral mass

Names

Types of funeral

Satires on the types of funeral

The social standing of the funeral

Burial mass and Funeral rites

«A tiempo» masses (concelebrated by different priests)

Infant funerals

Appendix: Obsequies according to the Roman Ritual

 

XV. OBSEQUIAL DAYS

Novena

Names

The novena in the twenties

Persistence and transformation of the novena

The novena in the Northern Basque Country

Reciting the rosary during the novena

Funeral rites

Month's Mind

Anniversary mass

Names

Southern Basque Country

Northern Basque Country

Mass offerings

Names

Northern Basque Country

Southern Basque Country

Gregorian masses

Appendix: Burial costs

 

XVI. BURIAL SITES IN CHURCHES. JARLEKUAK. FUESAS

Names

Validity of the symbolic burial sites

Household burial site

Collective burial site

Abolition of the burial sites

Burial goods

Cloth or tablecloth

Light holders

    • Woodcutter
    • Grave. Pit
    • Argizaiola
    • Candlestick

Beeswax

Candle decorations

Making candles and strips of candles by hand

Hamper of offerings

Kneeler

Custody of the belongings

Activation of the burial site

Primacy of the lady of the house

Sister's involvement

Duties of the sister on the day of the obsequies

Taking possession of the burial site

Length of the mourning at the burial site

 

XVII. OFFERINGS AND SUFFRAGES AT THE GRAVE. ARGIAK, OLATAK, HILOTOITZAK

Light offering

Beliefs

Light offering at the obsequies

    • Gipuzkoa
    • Navarre
    • Álava
    • Bizkaia
    • Northern Basque Country

Light offerings during the mourning period

    • Gipuzkoa
    • Navarre
    • Álava
    • Bizkaia
    • Northern Basque Country

Bread offering

Extent and validity of the bread offering

Types of bread, number and weight

Names

Offerers and recipients

Offering ritual at the obsequies

Bread offering at the novena

Offerings during the year of mourning

Offerings at the anniversary mass

Offerings on certain days

Distribution of the offering bread

Money offerings at the grave

Names

The responsories of the day of the burial

Responsories during the period of mourning

    • On feast days
    • Ordinary days

Responsories on certain days of the year

Evolution of the stipend of the responsories

Animal offerings in the past

Historical sources

Ethnographic sources

 

XVIII. ACT OF BURIAL

Attending the burial act

Ex officio attendees

Women not attending

Bereavement after the burial

Cortege to the limes

Direct cortege to the cemetery

Large procession

The burial today

Rituals in the cemetery

Retrieval of religious symbols

Throwing a handful of earth

The interment

Orientation of the tomb

In the church and in its surroundings

In the cemetery

    • Orientation with respect to the Sun
    • Orientation with respect to the church
    • Orientation with respect to the floor plan of the cemetery
    • Random distribution

 

XIX. RETURNING TO THE HOUSE OF THE DECEASED AND FUNERAL FEAST

Return of the cortege to the house of the deceased

Northern Basque Country

Southern Basque Country

Feast and refreshments for the attendees

Goodwill in Álava

Karidadea in Gipuzkoa

Other refreshments

Gifts to the participants in the obsequies

To the priests

To the coffin bearers

To children

To the auroros choirs

Alms to the poor

The burial meal

Names

Place of the meal

    • At the house of the deceased
    • In inns and taverns
    • Preparing the room and the meal

Diners

    • Relatives
    • Neighbours
    • Mezakoak
    • Other guests
    • Top table
    • Prayers

Composition of the meal

The burial meal at different places

    • Beskoitze (L)
    • Izpura (BN)
    • Ezpeize-Ündüreiñe (Z)
    • Basabüria (Haute Soule)
    • Aria (N)
    • Allo (N)
    • Mezkiriz (N)
    • Berastegi (G)
    • Elosua (G)
    • Abadiano (B)
    • Zeanuri (B)
    • Ribera Alta (A)
    • Salvatierra (A)

Anniversary and funeral rites meals

Current valuations

Appendix: Some legal restrictions about funeral feasts

 

XX. THE MOURNING. DOLUA

Names

Duration of the mourning

Restrictions during the mourning period

Attending dances and parties

Presence in bars and public establishments

Household celebrations

Noisy activities

Mourning apparel

Women's mourning apparel

    • Mourning veil
    • Mantalina
    • Shawl
    • Mantaleta
    • Kaputxina

Men's mourning apparel

    • Kapa
    • Kapa ttipia and taulerra

Children's mourning apparel

Less rigorous mourning

Home dying of garments for the mourning

Signs of mourning on the outside of the house

Drapery

Concealing the coats-of-arms

Extending the mourning to the domesticated animals

Other displays of mourning

Changes to the mourning

 

XXI. COMMEMORATION OF THE DEAD

1 November All Saints' Day

Offerings at the church

Visiting the cemetery

    • Southern Basque Country
    • Northern Basque Country

2 November Commemoration of the Faithful Departed or All Souls' Day

Offerings at the church

Visits to the cemetery

Novena for the Spirits in Purgatory

Distribution of the offerings to children

Indulgences for the deceased

Commemoration of the dead during the year

Caring for the graves

 

XXII. ASSOCIATIONS AROUND DEATH

General characteristics of the religious brotherhoods

Brotherhood of the True Cross

Brotherhood of the Holy Rosary

Brotherhood of the Spirits

Religious brotherhoods under other names (San Blas, San Nicolás, Fishermen and Seafarers Santiago Apóstol, San Francisco Javier, San Roque, San Sebastián, Santa Ana, San José, Blessed Sacrament, Santa Fe, Antorchas, Our Lady of the Grottoes)

Brotherhoods linked to shrines

Neighbourhood brotherhoods in Bizkaia

Brotherhood of San Miguel de Alzusta in Zeanuri

Brotherhood of San Adrián de Argiñeta in Elorrio

Brotherhood of the Sangüesa Trinity (Navarre)

Brotherhood of the Aramayona Priests (Álava)

Brotherhoods and Funeral Mutual Associations

Appendix

Charter of the Brotherhood of the Holy True Cross of the village of Villanueva de Valdegovía

Book of the Brotherhood of the Holy Rosary of this town of San Román

Rules and Charter of the Brotherhood of Spirits. Llodio

Statuts ou Règlements des Confrères de la Confrérie de Saint-Blaise du quartier d'Amots, en la Paroisse de St-Pé, du 14 fevrier 1779

Reformed Rules of the Brotherhood of the Nativity of Our Lady of the Reverend Priests of Aramayona Valley, Province of Álava, Diocese of Vitoria

Bakartasuna Brotherhood of the Dead. Zeanuri

Rules of the Brotherhood of the True Cross, founded in Alonsótegui in 1882

 

XXIII. BURIAL PLACES AND METHODS

Internment on the homestead

Internment next to the church

Internment inside the church

Legal restrictions regarding burial in churches

The cemetery

Names

Location of the cemetery

    • Next to the place of worship
    • Cemeteries around chapels
    • Cemeteries in the outskirts

Distribution of the cemetery area

Right of internment in the grave

Burial methods

    • The burial mound
    • Grave in the ground with flagstone
    • The pantheon
    • The crypt

Headstone

    • Crosses
    • Stelae

Unconsecrated ground

    • Limbo
    • Area for people who have committed suicide and non-believers
    • Specific cases
    • Civil burials

 

XXIV. APPARITIONS AND WANDERING SPIRITS. ARIMA HERRATUAK

Beliefs about apparitions

Types of spirit apparitions

Sounds and strong noises

Lights and glows

Shadows

Smells

Bodily form

Other types of apparition

Apparition times

Apparition scenarios

The house and outside the home

Paths and crossroads

Spirit abodes

Witnesses of the apparitions

Reaction to the apparitions

Preventions

Dialogues and rules

Precautions and accreditations

Ways of driving them away

Petitions to the spirits

    • Masses
    • Prayers
    • Settling debts
    • Fulfilling promises

Premonitions and fear of apparitions

Ban on going round and round the cemetery

Fear of burial places

Practices associated with beliefs in spirits

Traditionalised ghost stories

The travelling ghost hunter-priest

The priest one mass away

Debtor servant girl

Appendix: Ghost stories

Thundering spirit

Shining spirit

Fire footprint

The swine herd

Moving away in seven stages

The travelling ghost hunter-priest

The priest one mass away

Debtor servant girl

Arima herratua (âme errante) qui écrit sur un papier nu

Apparition in church

Group of spirits next to the cemetery

The lamp under the bushel

 

XXV. FUNERAL RITES IN THE NORTHERN BASQUE COUNTRY

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