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I. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Traditional animal husbandry and contemporary changes

Atlantic watershed

Bizkaia

Gipuzkoa

Northern Basque Country (lying within France)

Mediterranean watershed

Alava

Navarra

 

II. ANIMAL BREEDS

Cows and oxen

Betizu

Monchina

Terreña

Pyrenean

Evolution of the cattle population

Appendix: Description of the native breeds

Sheep

Breeds of the Atlantic watershed

    • Latxa and manexa
    • Carranzana, sasi-ardia and Basque-Bearnese

Breeds of the Mediterranean watershed

    • Coexistence of lacha, churra and merina breeds
    • Navarra breed

Appendix: Description of the native breeds

Nanny goats

Appendix: Description of the native breeds

Pigs

Appendix: Description of the native breeds

Mares, donkeys and mules

Appendix: Description of the native breeds

Hens, doves, ducks and other poultry

Other small animals: rabbits, dogs and cats

Appendix: Description of the native breeds

Appendix: Betizu, wild cow

 

III. NAMES OF THE ANIMALS

Names according to species, age and sex

Sheep

    • Young
    • Adults
    • Other names

Cattle

    • Young
    • Adults

Pigs

    • Young
    • Adults

Goats

    • Young
    • Adults

Horses

    • Young
    • Adults

Donkeys and Asses

    • Young
    • Adults

Mules

    • Young
    • Adults

Poultry

    • Young
    • Adults
    • Sundry animals

Other animals

 

IV. LANGUAGE AND HOW THE ANIMALS ARE TREATED

Names by which domesticated animals are known

Sheep

    • Due to the physical characteristics
    • Due to their character
    • Due to the place of birth or associated to events
    • Names of relatives, acquaintances or celebrities
    • Concatenated names

Cows and oxen

    • Due to the physical characteristics
    • Names of people and place of origin
    • Due to their character

Horses

    • Due to the colour of the coat
    • Due to the look and character

Dogs

    • Due to the colour of the fur
    • Due to the look, character and astral aspects

Names of nanny goats, donkeys, cats and pigs

Language and how the animals are treated

How the animals are treated

    • Patting

Language used with domesticated animals

    • Cows
    • Mares and assess
    • Sheep and nanny goats
    • Dogs and cats
    • Hens, ducks and pigs

Whistling

    • Sheep
    • Other animals

Utensils to prod the livestock

    • Goad. Pole
    • Grid, railing
    • Whip, lash or zurriago

 

V. STABLES AND ENCLOSURES FOR ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

The traditional stable

Stables located in the homestead itself: the pen

    • Characteristics of the stable
    • Divisions in the stable

Stables separate from the house

Mangers

    • Tethering animals at the mangers
    • Gates or grids
    • Hayrack

Manure

Modern stables. Changes occurred

Enclosures for animal husbandry

Pigsties

Hen houses

    • Roosts
    • Nest boxes

Rabbit hutches

Dovecotes

 

VI. FEEDING OF STABLED LIVESTOCK

Feeding of the homestead's livestock

Cows

    • Atlantic watershed
    • Mediterranean watershed
    • Water supply

Oxen

Horse herds

Sheep and nanny goats

Pigs

Hens and other poultry

Rabbits

Dogs and cats

Feeding the young

Calves

Lambs

Kids

Piglets

Foals (horse and donkey)

Chickens

Rabbits

Puppies and kittens

Feeding the livestock out in the fields

Mediterranean watershed

Atlantic watershed

Controlling the animals in the meadows

    • Tether or chain tied to a stake
    • Hobbling
    • Fetters
    • Fencing the meadows

 

VII. BREEDING AND CARE OF ANIMALS

The reproductive cycle of domesticated animals

Cows

    • Coming into season and covering
    • Gestation
    • Delivery
    • Looking after the calved cow

Sheep

    • Coming into season and covering
    • Gestation and delivery

Nanny goats

Mares

    • Coming into season
    • Gestation and delivery

Female donkeys

Obtaining mules

Sows

Does (rabbit)

Hens and doves

    • Determining the sex
    • Laying
    • Fertilisation and broody state
    • Incubation
    • Hatching the eggs

Female dogs

Female cats

Studs and artificial insemination

Procedures to calculate the age of the livestock

Cows

Sheep

Handling the body of the animals

Cutting the tails of the lambs

Other amputations, cuts and perforations

Removing horns

Castration

    • Bulls
    • Male donkeys and horse stallions
    • Rams and young goats
    • Boars and sows
    • Chickens

Shoeing

Shoeing process

    • Horses
    • Cattle

Shoes and nails

Other operations performed by farriers

 

VIII. UPLAND LIVESTOCK

Bizkaia

Gipuzkoa

Northern Basque Country

Álava

Navarra

Rounding up the upland livestock

The lasso

Salt and bread

Shouts and noise

Using catch dogs

Appendix: Use of the pasture land in Lezaun (N)

 

IX. DRIVING FLOCKS TO UPLAND PASTURES

Driving the flocks up

Influence of the climate and the pastures

Driving the flocks to the upland pastures according to the characteristics of the livestock

Daily cycle shepherding

Applicable regulations

Shepherding today

The shepherd’s time on the uplands alone or accompanied

Animal retinue of the shepherd

The best pasture for the flock

Mountain or summer pastures

Valley or winter pastures

Mediterranean watershed

Harmful pastures

Annual cycle of the shepherd and stay on the mountain

The Gorbea (B) shepherd

The Urbia and the Aizkorri (G) shepherds

The Souletin shepherd

The Allo (N) shepherd

Bringing the flock down

 

X. BRANDING

Livestock branding

Ear notches

    • Types and names of the notches
    • Notches in cattle and horses

Paint branding

Tar branding Pitch branding

Iron branding

    • Iron branding on horns, hooves or nose

Changes occurred in the branding of livestock. The ear tag

Cowbells or single bells

The sound of cowbells

Types of cowbells and single bells

    • Sheep
    • Transhumance
    • Nanny goats
    • Cows and mares

Livestock adornments

Collars with chimes and strings of bells

    • When carrying the harvest
    • For other farm work

Harnessed horses

Adorning the livestock

    • Plating the horses' manes and tails

 

XI. COMMON PASTURE LAND

Characteristics and evolution

Shrinkage and loss of common land

Reforesting and enclosures

Stubble fields

Provincial and municipal intervention

Conditions of sue


USE OF THE COMMON PASTURE LAND:

Common land in Bizkaia

Gorbea mountain range

Anboto and Oiz mountain ranges

Las Encartaciones

Carranza Valley

Commons associations and brotherhoods in Álava

Sierra Salvada commons association

Sierra Brava de Badaia commons association

Guibijo commons association

Urkabustaiz commons

Sierra de Árcamo Board

Valdegovía Valley

Sierra de Valderejo mountain range

Berganzo commons

Common upland in Toloño

La Isla common upland

Hernán Ruiz common upland

Izki Alto and Izki Bajo former commons associations

Laguardia and its region common upland

Moreda and Viana commons

Sierra de Codés mountain range

Parzonerías (supramunicipal land usage council) in Gipuzkoa and Álava

Gipuzkoa and Álava General Parzonería

Minor Parzonería

Entzia General Parzonería

Iturrieta Parzonería

Ernio and Jaizkibel uplands

Unions in the Sierra de Aralar mountain range

Enirio-Aralar supramunicipal district

Aralar Union

Urbasa and Andia mountain ranges

Las Améscoas commons

Sierra de Lokiz mountain range

Lezaun and Ultzama commons

Navarra Pyrenees

Baztan Valley

Erro Valley

Aoiz and Lónguida Valley

Salazar Valley

Roncal Valley

    • Grazing bans
    • Portions and passes
    • Panificado, casalenco (system of fallow and grazing land) and commons

Bardenas Reales grazing land

Pens

Sangüesa

San Martín de Unx

Mélida

Lodosa

Allo

Facerías (cross-border grazing agreements)

Inter-Pyrenean facerías

Tribute of the Three Cows

The Northern Basque Country

The Territorial Grazing Syndicates

The kaiolar

Appendix: Folds in the Basque Country

 

XII. MOUNTAIN PASTORAL ESTABLISHMENTS

Carranza Mountains

Cabins and huts

Sierra de Gorbea mountain range

Zeanuri

Orozko

Zuya Valley

Anboto and Aramotz mountain ranges

Mount Oiz

Sierra de Aizkorri mountain range

Urbia-Oltza

Degurixa-Alabieta

Arriurdin

Sierra de Izarraitz mountain range and Mount Ernio

Sierra de Aralar mountain range

Beasain

Ataun (1927)

Ataun (1955)

Abaltzisketa (1955)

Larraun Valley

Domed folds

Sierra de Urbasa mountain range

Sierra de Andia mountain range

Sierra de Entzia mountain range

Navarran Pyrenees

Basaburua Menor

Baztan Valley

Esteribar Valley

Aezkoa Valley

Salazar Valley

Roncal Valley

Navarra Media and Bardenas

Sangüesa

San Martín de Unx

Allo

Aoiz Valley

Bardenas

Mélida

Álava mountains

Valderejo

Sierra de Árcamo mountain range

Sierra Salvada mountain range

Sierra de Guibijo mountain range

Sierra Brava de Badaia mountain range

Treviño

Sierra de Toloño mountain range

Sierra de Izki mountain range

Rioja Alavesa. Moreda

Sierra de Codés mountain range

The Northern Basque Country: Space organisation on the mountain

The triple habitat

Lapurdi

    • Sara
    • Azkaine

Baja Navarra

    • Aldudes Valley
    • Ibarre
    • Garazi (Cize)

Zuberoa

    • Liginaga
    • Muskildi
    • Zunharreta
    • Etxebarre

 

XIII. TRANSHUMANCE AND TRANSTERMINANCE

Itinerant grazing

Major transhumance. Minor transhumance. Transterminance

Moving to winter pastures

Major winter transhumance

    • From the Navarran Pyrenean valleys to the Bardenas Reales
      • Grazing right
      • Using the drovers' trails
      • Preparations and droving order
      • Incidents and food along the drover's trail.
      • Entry to and time spent at the Bardenas. The return
    • Other transhumant movements in Navarra
    • Pyrenean-Aquitaine transhumant movements

Winter minor transhumance and transterminance

    • Transhumance to the valleys and coast of Bizkaia
    • Transhumance to the valleys and coast of Gipuzkoa
    • Pyrenean transhumance to the valleys and coast
    • Ribera Navarra transhumance

Moving to summer pastures

Summer transhumance to the Urbasa and Andia mountain ranges

Summer minor transhumance and transterminance

    • Álava mountains
    • Bizkaia mountains
    • Aralar and Aizkorri mountain ranges
    • Mounts Ernio and Izarraitz
    • Urbasa and Andia mountain ranges
    • Northern Basque Country

Life in the winter pastures

The shepherds of the Bardenas

The transhumant shepherd in the different provinces

Life in the summer pastures

Summer transhumance to the Urbasa and Andia mountain ranges

Minor transhumance and transterminance

    • Álava and Bizkaia mountains
    • Sierra de Aralar mountain range
    • Urbasa and Andia mountain ranges

Winter grazing availability

Álava

Bizkaia

Gipuzkoa and Lapurdi

Navarra

Itinerant grazing calendar

Eastern Pyrenees

Western Pyrenees

Urbasa and Andia mountain ranges

Aizkorri and Aralar mountain ranges

Bizkaia mountains

The bridleways

Tracks, paths

Drovers' trails

    • Drovers' trails in Álava
    • Drovers' trails in Navarra

Appendix: Drovers' trails in Navarra today

 

XIV. THE SHEPHERD’S DOG. ARDI-TXAKURRA

The Mastiff

Introduction of the sheepdog

Types of sheepdogs

Uses of the sheepdog

Dogs used to herd other livestock

Appendix: Sheepdog trials

 

XV. TYPES OF SHEPHERDS

Shepherds with their own flock

Shepherd boy. Shepherds' children

Shepherding associations

Large flock shepherds

Shepherds on a wage

Paid help

Head shepherd

Social standing

Council shepherds

Tasks

    • Álava
    • Navarra

Contractual terms and conditions

Wage. Food. Bonus

Looking after hobbled livestock

Appendix 1: Livestock herding hand in Irati at 11 years old

Appendix 2: Charter town livestock herders contract. 1890. Berganzo (A)

 

XVI. SHEPHERD'S APPAREL

Traditional warm clothing

Kapusaia. Txartesa. Long cape

Sheepskin coat or zamarra; apron or zagón

Blanket. Balaclava. Hats

Traditional footwear

Socks

Piales or thick knitted socks used in summer

Gaiters

Clogs. Overshoes

Snowshoes

The shepherd's apparel today

The shepherd's implements and weapons

Backpack or bag Saddlebags

Staff

Sling and pouch

Stout stick. Crook. Blackjack

Friction drum

Bullroarer

Fire arms

 

XVII. SHEPHERD CRAFT ITEMS AND BELONGINGS

Pastoral utensils

Wooden receptacles

Survival

Milking vessel

Milking ladle

Strainer

Abatza

Whisk

Dagger

Cheese strainer

Stand

Gaztandegia. Cheese production

Shepherd's cups

Pottery and cutlery

Spoons

Plates

Oporra. Esne-potoak

Saltshakers. Oil holders

Water containers

Manual work

The wool craft

Heyday and decline

Selecting the wool

Washing

Teasing

Spinning

Weaving

Laces for sandals

Twines, ropes and pack saddles

Crooks and walking sticks

Collars for cowbells

Names

Making collars

Transition

Cowbells and clappers

 

XVIII. HUNTING VERMIN

Wolf hunting

Disappearance of the wolf

Recent reappearance

Beliefs and legends about the wolf

Means of defence

Hunting techniques

    • Traps, snares and poisoned bait
    • Pursuing the quarry and shotgun hunting

Lairs

Fox hunting

Damage caused by the fox

Hunting techniques

    • Catching using cages
    • Snares
    • Traps
    • Poisoned bait
    • Shotgun hunting

Wild dogs

Minor predators

Birds

Rodents

Musetelids and viverrids

Bears

Contracting vermin hunters

Payment for the captured animals

Appendix: Description of some lairs

 

XIX. MILKING THE SHEEP

Milking

Milking parlour and names

Milking time and way

New milking methods

Milk production

Using hot stones to heat the milk

Goat's and ewe's milk. Its use

Atlantic watershed

Mediterranean watershed

Goat's milk

Contemporary transitions

Cow's milk

Milking the cow by hand

Milking procedure

Introduction of milking equipment

Measuring the milk

Distribution and sale of cow's milk

Transporting the products from the upland herds

Transporting the milk

Transporting the products

 

XX. CHEESE MAKING

Sheep's cheese making

The rennet

Cheese making in the Atlantic-side of the Basque Country

    • Cheese from the upland herds of Bizkaia and Álava
    • Cheese in areas close to the coast
    • Cheese in Urbia and Aralar
    • Cheese making in the Northern Basque Country

Cheese making in the Mediterranean-side of the Basque Country

    • Cheese in Álava
    • Cheese in Navarra

Weight and shape of sheep's cheese

Cheese types

    • Gaztazarra
    • Roncal cheese and Urbasa cheese

The cheese market

Markets of the Southern Basque Country (lying within Spain)

Markets of the Northern Basque Country (lying within France)

Making goat's cheese

Contemporary transitions

Other dairy products

Whey

Curd cheese

Junket

Appendix 1: A day in the life of the Ataun-Aralar (G) shepherd during cheese making

Appendix 2: Traditional method for making mountain cheese by hand, bortü-gazna, in Zuberoa

 

XXI. SHEARING

Shearing

Shearing time

Precautionary measures

Shearers

Shearing instruments

Shearing procedures

October shearing

Shearing today

Wool, artilea

Selling wool for household uses

Selling wool to textile factories

Wool quality and appraisal

Wool production and prices

Sale of wool today

Wool industry

Sheep manure

Appendix: Description of a modern shearing method

 

XXII. DOMESTIC SLAUGHTERING OF ANIMALS

Domestic slaughtering of animals on specific dates

Procedures used for domestic slaughtering

Domestic slaughtering of pigs

Domestic slaughtering of lambs and goats

Domestic slaughtering of cattle

Domestic slaughtering of poultry

Domestic slaughtering of rabbits

Sale of livestock for meat

Sheep raised for meat

Buyers of sheepmeat

    • Preferably selling to dealers
    • Selling to individuals and at market

Cattle raised for meat

Sheepskin, ardi-larrua

Buyers of skins

Skin as yoke decoration

Skin prices

 

XXIII. LIVESTOCK FAIRS AND BUYING AND SELLING LIVESTOCK

Livestock fairs

Fairs in Álava

Fairs in Bizkaia

Fairs in Gipuzkoa

Fairs in Navarra

Fairs in the Northern Basque Country

Fairs outside the Basque Country

Contemporary transitions

Buying and selling using dealers and between livestock farmers

The purchase agreement

Inspecting the cattle

Bargaining

Closing the deal

Shaking hands

The alboroque or rolba refreshments to seal the deal

Conditional purchase and quarantine of the livestock

Ways of acquiring livestock

The price of the livestock

Payment methods and terms

Monetary unit of the transaction

Importance of livestock farming in the family economy

Importance of the livestock

Complementary relationship between livestock farming and other activities

Current changes

 

XXIV. BEES, ERLEA

Bee-keeping

The spread of bee-keeping

Transhumance

Making and types of beehives

Trap, log and trunk beehives

Frame beehives

Bee skeps

Hives in hollows

The apiary

Catching swarms

Swarming

Stopping the swarm

Collecting the swarm

Ownership and marking swarms

Acquiring swarms

Maintaining the beehive

Harvesting the honeycombs

Harvest time

Harvesting procedures Tasting the honey

Means of protection

Obtaining apiculture products

Honey

Wax

Use of apiculture products

Honey

Mead

Wax

Honey bee venom

Beliefs and lore about bees

Contemporary changes

 

XXV. SACRED PROTECTION OF THE LIVESTOCK

St. Anthony Abbot, patron saint of livestock

Feast day for animals

Rites on his feast day

    • St. Anthony bonfires and smoke offerings
    • Livestock gatherings in front of churches
      • Navarra
      • Álava
      • Gipuzkoa and Bizkaia
    • Blessing food and cowbells
    • St. Anthony Cross round-ups

Praying and offerings to the Saints

Engravings and crosses in stables

St. Blaise

Rites and blessings on his feast day

St. John the Baptist, protector of the herds

Branches and flowers on the morning of the summer solstice

Symbols to protect against lightning

Hawthorn

Blessed bay leaves

Burning bay leaves

Holy May Cross

Blessed candles

Other procedures and prevention

The early axe

Ritual blessings

Txabolas and herds

Stables and pens

Upland pastures

Offerings

Charms

Animal protectors

 

XXVI. BELIEFS AND CUSTOMS

Regarding hens hatching their eggs

Odd number of eggs

The sign of the cross

Ideal time for hatching

Regarding breeding

Regarding atmospheric changes

Omens of death

Customs relating to mourning

Witch omens

Regarding driving livestock to upland grazing

Protecting against vermin

Rites to adapt to the homestead

Livestock

Hens and cats

Bildots-lorra: mutual help

Other customs

Shepherd festivities

Gifts and donations

Places of worship in grazing areas

 

XXVII. SHEPHERDS' GAMES

Venues for the games

Ball games

Pelota-jokoa

Urdanka

El chute - fast traditional game

Throwing games

Makilak zeharkatzea

Makila-jokoa

Zotzaldatzea

Stick throwing

Basque bar throwing

Harrika

Burruna

Rock throwing. Honda

Games of strength

Jumping games

Races

Bowling games

Table games

Cards

Artzain-jokoa. Noughts and Crosses

Ghost stories

Songs and musical instruments

Singing

Musical instruments of the shepherds

    • Horns
    • Whistles and flutes
    • Basque single-reed woodwind instrument
    • Alboka

Appendix: Description of the botu luzea and urdanka games by a shepherd from Soule

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