Table of contents

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LANDSCAPE

I. AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPE

Agricultural landscape of Álava

Agricultural landscape of Navarre

Agricultural landscape of Bizkaia

Agricultural landscape of Gipuzkoa

Landscapes of the Northern Basque Country: three aspects

 

II. FARMED LANDS

Land types, quality and crops

General points

Types of land

Ploughing the land

First ploughing

    • On common land
    • On private property

Crops

Irrigation

Names and description of the farmed land

Spanish names and descriptions

Basque names and descriptions

Sizes of the plots

Land consolidation

Situation and separation between fields

Stone walls

Predominantly open fields

Existing enclosures

Marking of boundaries

Natural boundaries

Local roads

Meeting places. Social contact areas

Appendix: Jurisdiction boundary stones

 

CROPS

III. CROP DISTRIBUTION AND ROTATION. FARMING YEAR

General points

Growth periods and days

Influence of the moon

Crop distribution in the different types of fields

Crop rotation

Farming year

Álava Mediterranean watershed

Navarre Mediterranean watershed

Atlantic watershed

Cycle of each crop

Seeds

Selecting the seeds

Obtaining and preserving seeds

Preparing seeds for sowing

Preparing seedbeds or sowings

Appendix: Sayings to do with agriculture

 

IV. PREPARATION OF THE CULTIVATED LAND

First ploughing of a piece of land

Ploughing scrubland or woodland

Ploughing pastureland

Modern techniques

Arable land

Preparing the fallow land

Preparation of the cultivated land

    • Mediterranean side of the watershed
    • Atlantic side of the watershed

Fertilising

Manure

    • Mediterranean watershed
    • Atlantic watershed

Mineral and synthetic fertilisers

    • Mediterranean watershed
    • Atlantic watershed

Compost and organic fertilisers

Use of ash

Liming

Lime production

Agricultural use of lime

 

V. SOWING AND CARING FOR THE CROPS

Sowing and planting

Crop diversity

Crops for human consumption

Cereals

    • Wheat
      • Mediterranean watershed
      • Atlantic watershed
    • Corn

Pulses and beans

    • Beans
    • Broad beans
    • Peas
    • Chickpeas, lentils and aizkol

Underground vegetables

    • Roots: carrot, parsley and beetroot
    • Stems
      • Potatoes
      • Asparagus
    • Leaves
      • Leek
      • Onions
      • Garlic

Above ground vegetables

    • Leaves
      • Lettuce
      • Cabbages
      • Chard
      • Endive, chicory, spinach, celery, cardoon and borage
      • Parsley
    • Flowers: cauliflowers and artichokes
    • Fruit
      • Peppers and chilli
      • Tomatoes
      • Cucumbers, pumpkins and courgettes
      • Melons and watermelons
      • Aubergines

Medicinal plants

Drugs

    • Tobacco
      • Growing tobacco in Gipuzkoa
      • Seedbeds
      • Growers
      • Growing tobacco in Navarra
    • Marihuana

Crops for livestock

Cereals

    • Oats
    • Barley
    • Rye
    • Corn

Legumes

Small fruit

Forage vegetables

    • Turnips
    • Beetroot
    • Pumpkins
    • Carrots

Industrial crops

Sugar beet

Potato

Vegetables

Other crops

Mushrooms

Ornamental plant crops

Caring for the crops

Weeding

    • Cereals
    • Pulses and beans
    • Potatoes
    • Vegetables

Use of pesticides

Fertilising cereals

Irrigation

 

VI. CROP HARVESTING AND PRESERVATION

Harvesting crops for human consumption

Evolution of reaping and threshing cereals

    • Álava Mediterranean watershed: reaping, hauling, threshing, tossing, storing grain and straw; harvesting today and baling
    • Navarre Mediterranean watershed: reaping, hauling, threshing, tossing, storing grain and straw; harvesting today and baling
    • Atlantic watershed: reaping, threshing, tossing; storage
    • Harvesting cereal today

Corn

Pulses and beans

    • Beans and pods
    • Broad beans
    • Peas
    • Chickpeas and lentils

Underground vegetables

    • Potatoes
    • Asparagus
    • Leeks; onions and garlic

Above ground vegetables

Crops for livestock

Cereals

Forage vegetables

    • Turnips
    • Beetroot
    • Pumpkins
    • Potatoes

Storing

Flour mills

Introduction

Mill types

Mills in the surveyed populations

    • Álava
    • Bizkaia
    • Gipuzkoa
    • Navarre

Decline of the mills

Components of a flour mill

Milling

Milling year

Communal and neighbourhood mills

 

VII. GRASS AND OTHER FORAGE

Grass in the traditional culture

Meadow creation and upkeep

    • Enclosing, ploughing and cultivation
    • Upkeep

Use

    • Grazing
    • Green reaping
    • Hay making
      • Reaping
      • Drying
      • Collecting and transporting
      • Storage
      • Consumption
      • Haystacks

Start of the changes

Changes in the 1960s

Silage

Mechanical harvesting

First tractors

Baling

Progressive mechanisation

Mechanisation of grass harvesting

Changes in livestock farming associated with mechanisation

Increased grass production

Latest modifications to cattle feeding

Changes linked to the livestock crisis

Growing grass on the Mediterranean side of the watershed

Other forage

Atlantic side of the watershed

Mediterranean side of the watershed

 

VIII. CULTURE OF FLAX AND HEMP

Traditional flax crop

Flax in the farmed landscape

Cropland

Types of flax and sowing season

Production process

Pulling up and softening

Threshing flax seeds

Soaking flax

Treating the strands

Breaking

Scrutching in the scrutcher

Heckling

Distaff

Teasing

Spinning

Spinning wheel

Spindle

Skeining

Bleaching

Winding

Making the fabric

Hemp

Esparto grass

 

FRUIT TREES. OLIVES AND VINES

IX. CULTURE OF FRUIT TREES

Introduction

Culture of fruit trees

Mediterranean watershed

Atlantic watershed

Planting and acquiring trees

Grafting

Care

Harvesting, storing and use of the fruit

 

X. CULTURE OF OLIVE TREES AND VINES

The olive tree

Olive-growing areas

Planting

Varieties that are planted

Care

    • Pruning
      • Time of year
      • Tools
    • Ways of pruning
    • Use of the pruned olive-tree branches
    • Tilling and digging
      • Time of year
      • Horse-driven and manual work
      • Mechanised work
    • Fertilising and irrigation
      • Time of year for fertilising
      • Types of fertilisers
      • Ways of fertilising
      • Irrigation
    • Pests and treatments
      • Winter
      • Spring
      • Summer

Transplanting

Vines

Historical background

Traditional vine growing on the Mediterranean watershed

    • Varieties
    • Tilling
    • Planting
    • Pruning
    • Grafting
    • Primary-shoot thinning
    • Fertilising
    • Secondary-shoot thinning
    • Fruit set
    • Pests
    • Other tasks

Vine growing today on the Mediterranean watershed

    • Preparing the land
    • Soil analysis
    • Pulling up the old vines and replanting
    • Vine varieties
    • Planting tasks
    • Planting procedures followed
    • Caring for the plants
      • Grafting
      • Pruning
      • Fertilising and irrigation
      • Tilling and digging
      • Use of herbicides
      • Treatments
      • Pests

Vine growing on the Atlantic watershed. Txakolina

    • Traditional vine growing
    • Trained vines
    • Tasks to care for the vines

 

XI. PRODUCTION OF OIL, WINE, TXAKOLIN AND CIDER

Oil

Harvesting the olives

    • Time of year
    • Method

Cleaning the olives

Making olive oil

    • Time of year
    • Delivering and weighing the olives. Their storage
    • Crushing
    • The hopper
    • The auger
    • The crusher
    • The beaters
    • The tank
    • The press
    • The stoning room
    • The oil vats
    • The waste holding tanks
    • Distribution of the oil
    • Other applications: soap and a medicated paste made of wax and oil

Refurbishment of the La Equidad olive oil press, Moreda (A)

Classification of the olive oil presses

    • Manual olive oil presses
    • Hydraulic olive oil presses
    • Olive oil presses with petrol engine
    • Electric olive oil presses

Appendices: Moreda (A) traditional olive oil presses

Retén de la Iglesia olive oil press

Tomás Laguardia olive oil press

Wine

Traditional grape harvest on the Mediterranean watershed

    • Wine making
      • Traditional wine-making at home
      • New procedures
      • Wine making in cave-winery
    • Changes to the wines
    • Garapitero or wine duty collector

The grape harvest today on the Mediterranean watershed

    • Wine making in industrial wineries
    • Types of reds
    • Whole grape or carbonic maceration system
    • Bordeaux system. Sorting, destemming and crushing method

Other beverages

Txakolin

Grape harvest

Pressing: the wine press

Contemporary changes

Regulatory boards and denominations of origin

Cider

Historical background

Apples and their growing

Apple diseases and pests

Cider making

    • Pre-treatment
    • Crushing
    • Maceration
    • Pressing
    • Fermentation and storage
    • Bottling

Changes to the cider

    • Acidity
    • Cloudiness
    • Forming of mould
    • Decolouring or blackening
    • Other changes to the cider

Cultural and festive events associated with cider

Drinks from cider

Appendix 1: Regulations of a cooperative winery

Appendix 2: Barrel manufacturing

 

FARM TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS

XII. TRADITIONAL FARMING EQUIPMENT

Implements for working the land

Spades

Hoes and their types

    • Hay hooks
    • Hand hoes. Rake
    • Large hoe

Pull-type implements to work the land

The plough

The plough in the Northern Basque Country

    • Nabarra
    • Goldea
    • Goldenabarra
    • Adareta
    • Urdamuturra
    • Golde itzulkorra
    • Swivel plough

The plough in the Southern Basque Country

    • Gipuzkoa and Bizkaia
      • Nabarra or knife to cut the ground
      • Exa
      • Golde txikia. Golde nagusia or swivel plough
    • Álava and Navarre

Tools to break up clods

Implements to break up and smooth the soil

Rakes. Zaranda

Aerator, are handia

Arralda. Hesia. Trapa. Narria. Digging implements

Alperra, roller

Implements to make furrows

Cultivator

Markoa, marker

Spike ploughs

Itailak

Nabasaia. Lauhortza

Tragaz

Plané

Makatza

Disk plough

Reaping instruments

Sickle

    • Names
    • Zoqueta hand protector

Scythe

    • Names

Instruments to sharpen scythes and sickles

Sharpening stone

Instruments to sharpen different implements

Instruments to collect crops and grass

Pitchfork

Large pitchfork. Hayfork

Iron pitchfork

Metal pitchfork with curved spikes

Sacking

Small rake. Rake

Manual baler

Hook

Clearing instruments

Aihotza, pruning hook

Sickle

Belagoia

Instruments to work with manure

Instruments to thresh wheat and corn

Mayal, trailua, txibita

Wheat threshing stones

Threshers

Instruments for winnowing wheat

Threshing board

Winnowing blade

Sieve, sifter

Winnowing fork machine

Corn thresher

Shelling legumes

Instruments to cut wood

Axe

    • Double-bladed axe
    • Sharpening
    • Wedge

Saw. Handsaw

    • Mitre saw
    • Felling trees using a mitre saw
    • Arpana. Saw for timber
    • Sawhorse

Utensils for harvesting fruit

Pole, haga, kakoa

Pincers

Utensils for looking after the vines

Iron bar with a sharp point, iron bar

Sickle. Gardening machete

Hook. Billhook

Harvesting and pruning shears

Transport tools

Transporting on shoulders

    • Antzadila. Velorto.
    • Kakola
    • Sábanos. Maniriak

Transport instruments

    • Baskets: saskia, zarea, zarana. Carpancho, cunacho, large baskets. Hampers and esparto grass baskets. Otarria, otzarea
    • Hand biers
    • Handcart

Appendix: Timber rafts

 

XIII. MEASUREMENT UNITS

Introduction

The human body as a yardstick

Length measurements

Length measurement instruments

Surface measurements

Weight measurements

Weighing instruments

Capacity measurements and instruments for aggregates

Capacity measurements for liquids

Measurements related to the sale of timber and the grass transporting

Changes

Equivalents

 

WORKFORCE

XIV. WORKFORCE AND POWER USED IN AGRICULTURE

Human power

Shared work of the family

More typical work of the men

Women's involvement

Tasks of the elderly

Paid help

Children's work

Neighbours helping each other

Contracting temporary workers

Taking on day labourers in the public square

Casual workers

Transitions

Work garments

Men's clothing

Women's clothing

Footwear

Animal power

Cattle

Horses

Donkeys and Asses

Nowadays

Appendix: Work conditions of the day labourers and day's wages in past centuries in Viana (N)

 

XV. ANIMAL TRANSPORT. THE CART, GURDIA

The cart. The hay wagon

Northern Basque Country: Sara, Donoztiri, Uhartehiri, Garazi, Liginaga

Navarre: Bera, Urdiain, Améscoa, Aoiz, Valle de Arce and Oroz-Betelu, Viana, San Martín de Unx, Obanos, Muez and Ugar, Valle de Roncal, Valtierra, Cárcar

Álava: Valderejo, Bernedo, Moreda, Abezia, Apodaka, Treviño and La Puebla de Arganzón, Berganzo, Pipaón and Ribera Alta, Argandoña

Gipuzkoa: Berastegi, Beasain, Hondarribia, Elgoibar, Telleriarte, Zerain

Bizkaia: Gautegiz Arteaga, Abadiño, Amorebieta-Etxano, Bedarona, Urduliz, Valle de Carranza

The rustic sled

Northern Basque Country

Navarre

Álava

Gipuzkoa

Bizkaia

The yoke

Way of yoking the oxen

Complements of the yoke

    • Tethering
    • Hood
    • Borders
    • Cart rope

Horse yokes

Horse and ass harnesses and implements

    • Pack saddle, saddlecloth and blanket
    • Headgear and blinkers
    • Draft collar. Leather draft collar
    • Draw reins

Transport implements

    • Hooks
    • Biers
    • Saddlebags. Astotzarak
    • Other items

 

XVI. MECHANISATION OF AGRICULTURE

Introduction

Mechanisation in a locality of Álava

The plough and its evolution

Industrialisation of the farm implements

The appearance of the tractor

Implements used during the farming year

Preparing the land

Sowing

Care of the crops

Harvesting

Mediterranean watershed

Atlantic watershed

Mechanisation today

Mediterranean watershed

Atlantic watershed

Machines in society and collective property

 

AGRICULTURAL TRADE AND LAND OWNERSHIP

XVII. OWN USE AND AGRICULTURAL TRADE

Buying seeds and plants

Nowadays

Buying fertilisers

Manufacturing implements

Buying implements

Repairing implements

Markets and agricultural fairs

Direct selling

Special fairs

Services providers by peddlers

Butchery services

Livestock fairs

Preparing products, contracts and terms of payment

 

XVIII. OWNERSHIP SYSTEM. COMMUNAL PROPERTY AND PRIVATE PROPERTY

Communal property and its use

Common property and its use

Other uses of common upland

Tierras de Misericordia and Arca de Misericordia (Ecclesiastic and Secular Land and Wheat Bank in Time of Hardship)

Owners who directly farmed their land

Owners who farmed by means of tenants

Price of the rent and how it was set

Payment in kind or in cash

    • Terms of payment
    • Payment times

Situation today

Overlapping of common and private property

Time of ruin

Privately-owned trees on common land

 

BELIEFS AND RITES

XIX. PROTECTION CUSTOMS AND RITES IN AGRICULTURE

Protecting seedbeds and plants

Protecting against pests

Protecting against wild boars and badgers

Protecting against rabbits

Protecting against birds. Scarecrows

Symbolic customs and rites: solstice fires

Customs around St. John the Baptist's Feast Day

Old beliefs relating to the fertility of the earth

Saints' images and magic

Erecting the maypole

Blessing the fields and seeds

Blessing and erecting crosses

Blessed branches

Rites to bless the fields

Blessing seeds

Bell-ringing and spells against storms. Moving the saint's images

Bell-ringing

Pebbles collected at Easter

Incantations from the church or chapel

Praying to Saint Barbara

Saints' images

Prayers

St. Mark litanies

Ascension prayers

Occasional prayers

Prayers at shrines

Moving images in processions

Saints protecting crops

St. Gregory of Ostia

St. Isidore the Labourer

St. Faustus the Labourer

Harvest thanksgiving

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