Table of contents
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I. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Traditional animal husbandry and contemporary changes
Atlantic watershed
Bizkaia
Gipuzkoa
Northern Basque Country (lying within France)
Mediterranean watershed
Alava
Navarra
II. ANIMAL BREEDS
Cows and oxen
Betizu
Monchina
Terreña
Pyrenean
Evolution of the cattle population
Appendix: Description of the native breeds
Sheep
Breeds of the Atlantic watershed
- Latxa and manexa
- Carranzana, sasi-ardia and Basque-Bearnese
Breeds of the Mediterranean watershed
- Coexistence of lacha, churra and merina breeds
- Navarra breed
Appendix: Description of the native breeds
Nanny goats
Appendix: Description of the native breeds
Pigs
Appendix: Description of the native breeds
Mares, donkeys and mules
Appendix: Description of the native breeds
Hens, doves, ducks and other poultry
Other small animals: rabbits, dogs and cats
Appendix: Description of the native breeds
Appendix: Betizu, wild cow
III. NAMES OF THE ANIMALS
Names according to species, age and sex
Sheep
- Young
- Adults
- Other names
Cattle
- Young
- Adults
Pigs
- Young
- Adults
Goats
- Young
- Adults
Horses
- Young
- Adults
Donkeys and Asses
- Young
- Adults
Mules
- Young
- Adults
Poultry
- Young
- Adults
- Sundry animals
Other animals
IV. LANGUAGE AND HOW THE ANIMALS ARE TREATED
Names by which domesticated animals are known
Sheep
- Due to the physical characteristics
- Due to their character
- Due to the place of birth or associated to events
- Names of relatives, acquaintances or celebrities
- Concatenated names
Cows and oxen
- Due to the physical characteristics
- Names of people and place of origin
- Due to their character
Horses
- Due to the colour of the coat
- Due to the look and character
Dogs
- Due to the colour of the fur
- Due to the look, character and astral aspects
Names of nanny goats, donkeys, cats and pigs
Language and how the animals are treated
How the animals are treated
- Patting
Language used with domesticated animals
- Cows
- Mares and assess
- Sheep and nanny goats
- Dogs and cats
- Hens, ducks and pigs
Whistling
- Sheep
- Other animals
Utensils to prod the livestock
- Goad. Pole
- Grid, railing
- Whip, lash or zurriago
V. STABLES AND ENCLOSURES FOR ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
The traditional stable
Stables located in the homestead itself: the pen
- Characteristics of the stable
- Divisions in the stable
Stables separate from the house
Mangers
- Tying animals at the managers
- Gates or grids
- Hayrack
Manure
Modern stables. Changes occurred
Enclosures for animal husbandry
Pigsties
Hen houses
- Roosts
- Nest boxes
Rabbit hutches
Dovecotes
VI. FEELING STABLED LIVESTOCK
Feeding the homestead's livestock
Cows
- Atlantic watershed
- Mediterranean watershed
- Water supply
Oxen
Horse herds
Sheep and nanny goats
Pigs
Hens and other poultry
Rabbits
Dogs and cats
Feeding the young
Calves
Lambs
Kids
Piglets
Foals (horse and donkey)
Chickens
Rabbits
Puppies and kittens
Feeding the livestock out in the fields
Mediterranean watershed
Atlantic watershed
Controlling the animals in the meadows
- Tether or chain tied to a stake
- Hobbling
- Fetters
- Fencing the meadows
VII. BREEDING AND LOOKING AFTER THE ANIMALS
The reproductive cycle of domesticated animals
Cows
- Coming into season and covering
- Gestation
- Delivery
- Looking after the calved cow
Sheep
- Coming into season and covering
- Gestation and delivery
Nanny goats
Mares
- Coming into season
- Gestation and delivery
Female donkeys
Obtaining mules
Sows
Does (rabbit)
Hens and doves
- Determining the sex
- Laying
- Fertilisation and broody state
- Incubation
- Hatching the eggs
Female dogs
Female cats
Studs and artificial insemination
Procedures to calculate the age of the livestock
Cows
Sheep
Handling the body of the animals
Cutting the tails of the lambs
Other amputations, cuts and perforations
Removing horns
Castration
- Bulls
- Male donkeys and horse stallions
- Rams and young goats
- Boars and sows
- Chickens
Shoeing
Shoeing process
- Horses
- Cattle
Shoes and nails
Other operations performed by farriers
VIII. UPLAND LIVESTOCK
Bizkaia
Gipuzkoa
Northern Basque Country
Álava
Navarra
Rounding up the upland livestock
The lasso
Salt and bread
Shouts and noise
Using catch dogs
Appendix: Use of the pasture land in Lezaun (N)
IX. DRIVING FLOCKS TO UPLAND PASTURES
Taking the flocks up
Influence of the climate and the pastures
Driving the flocks to the upland pastures according to the characteristics of the livestock
Daily cycle shepherding
Applicable regulations
Shepherding today
The shepherd migrating to the uplands alone or accompanied
Animal retinue of the shepherd
The best pasture for the flock
Mountain or summer pastures
Valley or winter pastures
Mediterranean watershed
Harmful pastures
Annual cycle of the shepherd and stay on the mountain
The Gorbea (B) shepherd
The Urbia and the Aizkorri (G) shepherds
The Souletin shepherd
The Allo (N) shepherd
Bringing the flock down
X. BRANDING
Livestock branding
Ear notches
- Types and names of the notches
- Notches in cattle and horses
Paint branding
Tar branding Pitch branding
Iron branding
- Iron branding on horns, hooves or nose
Changes occurred in the branding of livestock. The eartag
Cowbells and large bells
The sound off the cowbells
Types of cowbells and shearing
- Sheep
- Transhumance
- Nanny goats
- Cows and mares
Livestock adornments
Collars for chimes and bells
- When carrying the harvest
- For other farm work
Harnessed horses
Adorning the livestock
- Plating the horses' manes and tails
XI. COMMON PASTURE LAND
Characteristics and evolution
Depletion and loss of common land
Reforesting and enclosures
Stubble fields
Provincial and municipal intervention
Conditions of sue
USE OF THE COMMON PASTURE LAND
Common land in Bizkaia
Gorbea mountain range
Anboto and Oiz mountain ranges
Las Encartaciones
Carranza Valley
Commons associations and brotherhoods in Álava
Sierra Salvada commons association
Sierra Brava de Badaia commons association
Guibijo commons association
Urkabustaiz commons
Sierra de Árcamo Board
Valdegovía Valley
Sierra de Valderejo mountain range
Berganzo commons
Common upland in Toloño
La Isla common upland
Hernán Ruiz common upland
Izki Alto and Izki Bajo former commons associations
Laguardia and its region common upland
Moreda and Viana commons
Sierra de Codés mountain range
Parzonerías (supramunicipal land usage system) in Gipuzkoa and Álava
Gipuzkoa and Álava General Parzonería
Minor Parzonería
Entzia General Parzonería
Iturrieta Parzonería
Ernio and Jaizkibel uplands
Unions in the Sierra de Aralar mountain range
Enirio-Aralar supramunicipal district
Aralar Union
Urbasa and Andia mountain ranges
Las Améscoas commons
Sierra de Lokiz mountain range
Lezaun and Ultzama commons
Navarra Pyrenees
Baztan Valley
Erro Valley
Aoiz and Lónguida Valley
Salazar Valley
Roncal Valley
- Grazing bans
- Portions and passes
- Panificado, casalenco (system of fallow and grazing land) and commons
Bardenas Reales grazing land
Corrals
Sangüesa
San Martín de Unx
Mélida
Lodosa
Allo
Facerías (cross-border grazing agreements)
Inter-Pyrenean facerías
Tribute of the Three Cows
The Northern Basque Country
The Territorial Grazing Syndicates
The kaiolar
Appendix: Folds in the Basque Country
XII. MOUNTAIN PASTORAL ESTABLISHMENTS
Carranza Mountains
Cabins and huts
Sierra de Gorbea mountain range
Zeanuri
Orozko
Zuya Valley
Anboto and Aramotz mountain ranges
Mount Oiz
Sierra de Aizkorri mountain range
Urbia-Oltza
Degurixa-Alabieta
Arriurdin
Sierra de Izarraitz mountain range and Mount Ernio
Sierra de Aralar mountain range
Beasain
Ataun (1927)
Ataun (1955)
Abaltzisketa (1955)
Larraun Valley
Domed folds
Sierra de Urbasa mountain range
Sierra de Andia mountain range
Sierra de Entzia mountain range
Navarran Pyrenees
Basaburua Menor
Baztan Valley
Esteribar Valley
Aezkoa Valley
Salazar Valley
Roncal Valley
Navarra Media and Bardenas
Sangüesa
San Martín de Unx
Allo
Aoiz Valley
Bardenas
Mélida
Álava mountains
Valderejo
Sierra de Árcamo mountain range
Sierra Salvada mountain range
Sierra de Guibijo mountain range
Sierra Brava de Badaia mountain range
Treviño
Sierra de Toloño mountain range
Sierra de Izki mountain range
Rioja Alavesa. Moreda
Sierra de Codés mountain range
The Northern Basque Country: Space organisation on the mountain
The triple habitat
Lapurdi
- Sara
- Azkaine
Baja Navarra
- Aldudes Valley
- Ibarre
- Garazi (Cize)
Zuberoa
- Liginaga
- Muskildi
- Zunharreta
- Etxebarre
XIII. TRANSHUMANCE AND TRANSTERMINANCE
Itinerant grazing
Major transhumance. Minor transhumance. Transterminance
Moving to winter pastures
Major winter transhumance
- From the Navarran Pyrenean valleys to the Bardenas Reales
- Grazing right
- Using the drovers' trails
- Preparations and droving order
- Incidents and food along the drover's trail.
- Entry to and time spent at the Bardenas. The return
- Other transhumant movements in Navarra
- Pyrenean-Aquitaine transhumant movements
Winter minor transhumance and transterminance
- Transhumance to the valleys and coast of Bizkaia
- Transhumance to the valleys and coast of Gipuzkoa
- Pyrenean transhumance to the valleys and coast
- Ribera Navarra transhumance
Moving to summer pastures
Summer transhumance to the Urbasa and Andia mountain ranges
Summer minor transhumance and transterminance
- Álava mountains
- Bizkaia mountains
- Aralar and Aizkorri mountain ranges
- Mounts Ernio and Izarraitz
- Urbasa and Andia mountain ranges
- Northern Basque Country
Life in the winter pastures
The shepherds of the Bardenas
The transhumant shepherd in the different provinces
Life in the summer pastures
Summer transhumance to the Urbasa and Andia mountain ranges
Minor transhumance and transterminance
- Álava and Bizkaia mountains
- Sierra de Aralar mountain range
- Urbasa and Andia mountain ranges
Winter grazing availability
Álava
Bizkaia
Gipuzkoa and Lapurdi
Navarra
Itinerant grazing calendar
Eastern Pyrenees
Western Pyrenees
Urbasa and Andia mountain ranges
Aizkorri and Aralar mountain ranges
Bizkaia mountains
The bridleways
Tracks, paths
Drovers' trails
- Drovers' trails in Álava
- Drovers' trails in Navarra
Appendix: Drovers' trails in Navarra today
XIV. THE SHEEPDOG. ARDI-TXAKURRA
The Mastiff
Introduction of the sheepdog
Types of sheepdogs
Uses of the sheepdog
Dogs used to herd other livestock
Appendix: Sheepdog trials
XV. TYPES OF SHEPHERDS
Shepherds with their own flock
Shepherd boy. Shepherds' children
Shepherding associations
Largo flock shepherds
Shepherds on a wage
Paid help
Farm manager
Social standing
Council shepherds
Tasks
- Álava
- Navarra
Contractual terms and conditions
Wage. Food. Bonus
Looking after hobbled livestock
Appendix 1: Livestock herding hand in Irati at 11 years old
Appendix 2: Charter town livestock herders contract. 1890. Berganzo (A)
XVI. SHEPHERD'S APPAREL
Traditional warm clothing
Kapusaia. Txartesa. Long cape
Sheepskin coat or zamarra; apron or zagón
Blanket. Balaclava. Hats
Traditional footwear
Socks
Piales or thick knitted socks used in summer
Gaiters
Clogs. Overshoes
Snowshoes
The shepherd's apparel today
The shepherd's implements and weapons
Backpack or bag Saddlebags
Staff
Sling and pouch
Stout stick. Crook. Blackjack
Friction drum
Bullroarer
Fire arms
XVII. SHEPHERD CRAFT ITEMS AND BELONGINGS
Pastoral utensils
Wooden receptacles
Survival
Milking vessel
Milking ladle
Strainer
Abatza
Whisk
Dagger
Cheese strainer
Stand
Gaztandegia. Cheese production
Shepherd's cups
Pottery and cutlery
Spoons
Plates
Oporra. Esne-potoak
Saltshakers. Oil holders
Water containers
Manual work
The wool craft
Heyday and decline
Selecting the wool
Washing
Teasing
Spinning
Weaving
Laces for sandals
Twines, ropes and pack saddles
Crooks and walking sticks
Collars for cowbells
Names
Making collars
Transition
Cowbells and clappers
XVIII. HUNTING VERMIN
Wolf hunting
Disappearance of the wolf
Recent reappearance
Beliefs and legends about the wolf
Means of defence
Hunting techniques
- Traps, snares and poisoned bait
- Pursuing the quarry and shotgun hunting
Lairs
Fox hunting
Damage caused by the fox
Hunting techniques
- Catching using cages
- Snares
- Traps
- Poisoned bait
- Shotgun hunting
Wild dogs
Minor predators
Birds
Rodents
Musetelids and viverrids
Bears
Contracting vermin hunters
Payment for the captured animals
Appendix: Description of some lairs
XIX. MILKING THE SHEEP
Milking
Milking parlour and names
Milking time and way
New milking methods
Milk production
Using hot stones to heat the milk
Goat's and ewe's milk. Its use
Atlantic watershed
Mediterranean watershed
Goat's milk
Contemporary transitions
Cow's milk
Milking the cow by hand
Milking procedure
Introduction of milking equipment
Measuring the milk
Distribution and sale of cow's milk
Transporting the products from the upland herds
Transporting the milk
Transporting the products
XX. PRODUCING CHEESE
Making sheep's cheese
The rennet
Cheese making in the Atlantic-side of the Basque Country
- Cheese from the upland herds of Bizkaia and Álava
- Cheese in areas close to the coast
- Cheese in Urbia and Aralar
- Cheese making in the Northern Basque Country
Cheese making in the Mediterranean-side of the Basque Country
- Cheese in Álava
- Cheese in Navarra
Weight and shape of sheep's cheese
Cheese types
- Gaztazarra
- Roncal cheese and Urbasa cheese
The cheese market
Markets of the Southern Basque Country (lying within Spain)
Markets of the Northern Basque Country (lying within France)
Making goat's cheese
Contemporary transitions
Other dairy products
Whey
Curd cheese
Junket
Appendix 1: A day in the life of the Ataun-Aralar (G) shepherd during cheese making
Appendix 2: Traditional method for making mountain cheese by hand, bortü-gazna, in Zuberoa
XXI. SHEARING
Shearing
Shearing time
Precautionary measures
Shearers
Shearing instruments
Shearing procedures
October shearing
Shearing today
Wool, artilea
Selling wool for household uses
Selling wool to textile factories
Wool quality and appraisal
Wool production and prices
Sale of wool today
Wool industry
Sheep manure
Appendix: Description of a modern shearing method
XXII. DOMESTIC SLAUGHTERING OF ANIMALS
Domestic slaughtering of animals on specific dates
Procedures used for domestic slaughtering
Domestic slaughtering of pigs
Domestic slaughtering of lambs and goats
Domestic slaughtering of cattle
Domestic slaughtering of poultry
Domestic slaughtering of rabbits
Sale of livestock for meat
Sheep raised for meat
Buyers of sheepmeat
- Preferably selling to dealers
- Selling to individuals and at market
Cattle raised for meat
Sheepskin, ardi-larrua
Buyers of skins
Skin as yoke decoration
Skin prices
XXIII. LIVESTOCK FAIRS AND BUYING AND SELLING LIVESTOCK
Livestock fairs
Fairs in Álava
Fairs in Bizkaia
Fairs in Gipuzkoa
Fairs in Navarra
Fairs in the Northern Basque Country
Fairs outside the Basque Country
Contemporary transitions
Buying and selling using dealers and between livestock farmers
The purchase agreement
Inspecting the cattle
Bargaining
Closing the deal
Shaking hands
The alboroque or rolba refreshments to seal the deal
Conditional purchase and quarantine of the livestock
Ways of acquiring livestock
The price of the livestock
Payment methods and terms
Monetary unit of the transaction
Importance of livestock farming in the family economy
Importance of the livestock
Complementary relationship between livestock farming and other activities
Current changes
XXIV. BEES, ERLEA
Bee-keeping
The spread of bee-keeping
Transhumance
Making and types of beehives
Trap, log and trunk beehives
Frame beehives
Bee skeps
Hives in hollows
The apiary
Catching swarms
Swarming
Stopping the swarm
Collecting the swarm
Ownership and marking swarms
Acquiring swarms
Maintaining the beehive
Harvesting the honeycombs
Harvest time
Harvesting procedures Tasting the honey
Means of protection
Obtaining apiculture products
Honey
Wax
Use of apiculture products
Honey
Mead
Wax
Honey bee venom
Beliefs and lore about bees
Contemporary changes
XXV. SACRED PROTECTION OF THE LIVESTOCK
St. Anthony Abbot, patron saint of livestock
Feast day for animals
Rites on his feast day
- St. Anthony bonfires and smoke offerings
- Livestock gatherings in front of churches
- Navarra
- Álava
- Gipuzkoa and Bizkaia
- Blessing food and cowbells
- St. Anthony Cross round-ups
Praying and offerings to the Saints
Engravings and crosses in stables
St. Blaise
Rites and blessings on his feast day
St. John the Baptist, protector of the herds
Branches and flowers on the morning of the summer solstice
Symbols to protect against lightning
Hawthorn
Blessed bay leaves
Burning bay leaves
Holy May Cross
Blessed candles
Other procedures and prevention
The early axe
Ritual blessings
Txabolas and herds
Stables and pens
Upland pastures
Offerings
Charms
Animal protectors
XXVI. BELIEFS AND CUSTOMS
Regarding hens hatching their eggs
Odd number of eggs
The sign of the cross
Ideal time for hatching
Regarding breeding
Regarding atmospheric changes
Omens of death
Customs relating to mourning
Witch omens
Regarding driving livestock to upland grazing
Protecting against vermin
Rites to adapt to the homestead
Livestock
Hens and cats
Bildots-lorra: mutual help
Other customs
Shepherd festivities
Gifts and donations
Places of worship in grazing areas
XXVII. SHEPHERDS' GAMES
Venues for the games
Ball games
Pelota-jokoa
Urdanka
El chute - fast traditional game
Throwing games
Makilak zeharkatzea
Makila-jokoa
Zotzaldatzea
Stick throwing
Basque bar throwing
Harrika
Burruna
Rock throwing. Honda
Games of strength
Jumping games
Races
Bowling games
Table games
Cards
Artzain-jokoa. Noughts and Crosses
Ghost stories
Songs and musical instruments
Singing
Musical instruments of the shepherds
- Horns
- Whistles and flutes
- Basque single-reed woodwind instrument
- Alboka