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Revisión del 06:42 21 feb 2019

LANDSCAPE

I. THE AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPE

Agricultural landscape of Álava

Agricultural landscape of Navarra

Agricultural landscape of Bizkaia

Agricultural landscape of Gipuzkoa

Landscapes of the Northern Basque Country (lying within France): three aspects

 

II. FARMED LANDS

Land types, quality and crops

• General points

• Types of land

• Ploughing the land

• First ploughing

• • On common land
  • On private property

• Crops

• Irrigation

Names and description of the farmed land

• Spanish names and descriptions

• Basque names and descriptions

Sizes of the plots

• Land consolidation

Situation and separation between fields

• Stone walls

• Predominantly open fields

• Existing enclosures

• Marking of boundaries

• Natural boundaries

Local roads

Meeting places. Social contact areas

Appendix: Jurisdiction boundary stones

 

CROPS

III. CROP DISTRIBUTION AND ROTATION. FARMING YEAR

General points

• Growth periods and days

• Influence of the moon

Crop distribution in the different types of fields

Crop rotation

Farming year

• Álava Mediterranean watershed

• Navarra Mediterranean watershed

• Atlantic watershed

• Cycle of each crop

Seeds

• Seed selection

• Obtaining and preserving seeds

• Preparing seeds for sowing

• Preparing seedbeds or sowings

Appendix: Sayings to do with agriculture

 

IV. PREPARING THE CULTIVATED LAND

First ploughing of a piece of land

• Ploughing scrubland or woodland

• Ploughing pastureland

• Modern techniques

Arable land

• Preparing the fallow land

• Preparing the cultivated land

• • The Mediterranean side of the watershed
  • The Atlantic side of the watershed

Fertilising

• Manure

• • Mediterranean watershed
  • Atlantic watershed

• Mineral and synthetic fertilisers

• • Mediterranean watershed
  • Atlantic watershed

• Compost and organic fertilisers

Use of ash

Liming

• Lime production

• Agricultural use of lime

 

V. SOWING AND CARING FOR THE CROPS

Sowing and planting

Crop diversity

Crops for human consumption

• Cereals

• • Wheat

• • • Mediterranean watershed
    • Atlantic watershed

• • Corn

• Pulses and beans

• • Beans
  • Broad beans
  • Peas
  • Chickpeas, lentils and aizkol

• Underground vegetables

• • Roots: carrot, parsley and beetroot
  • Stems

• • • Potatoes
    • Asparagus

• • Leaves

• • • Leek
    • Onions
    • Garlic

• Above ground vegetables

• • Leaves

• • • Lettuce
    • Cabbages
    • Chard
    • Endive, chicory, spinach, celery, cardoon and borage
    • Parsley

• • Flowers: cauliflowers and artichokes
  • Fruit

• • • Peppers and chilli
    • Tomatoes
    • Cucumbers, pumpkins and courgettes
    • Melons and watermelons
    • Aubergines

• Medicinal plants

• Drugs

• • Tobacco

• • • Growing tobacco in Gipuzkoa
    • The seedbeds
    • The growers
    • Growing tobacco in Navarra

• • Marihuana

Crops for livestock

• Cereals

• • Oats
  • Barley
  • Rye
  • Corn

• Legumes

• Small fruit

• Forage vegetables

• • Turnips
  • Beetroot
  • Pumpkins
  • Carrots

Industrial crops

• Sugar beet

• Potato

• Vegetables

• Other crops

• Mushrooms

Ornamental plant crops

Caring for the crops

• Weeding

• • Cereals
  • Pulses and beans
  • Potatoes
  • Vegetables

• Use of pesticides

• Fertilising cereals

• Irrigation

 

VI. CROP HARVESTING AND PRESERVATION

Harvesting crops for human consumption

• Evolution of reaping and threshing cereals

• • Álava Mediterranean watershed: reaping, hauling, threshing, tossing, storing grain and straw; harvesting today and baling
  • Navarra Mediterranean watershed: reaping, hauling, threshing, tossing, storing grain and straw; harvesting today and baling
  • Atlantic watershed: reaping, threshing, tossing; storage
  • Harvesting cereal today

• Corn

• Pulses and beans

• • Beans and pods
  • Broad beans, baba
  • Peas
  • Chickpeas and lentils

• Underground vegetables

• • Potatoes
  • Asparagus
  • Leeks; onions and garlic

• Above ground vegetables

Crops for livestock

• Cereals

• Forage vegetables

• • Turnips
  • Beetroot
  • Pumpkins
  • Potatoes

Storage and preservation

Flour mills

• Introduction

• Mill types

• Mills in the surveyed populations

• • Álava
  • Bizkaia
  • Gipuzkoa
  • Navarra

• Decline of the mills

• The components of a flour mill

• Milling

• Milling year

• Communal and neighbourhood mills

 

VII. GRASS AND OTHER FORAGE

Grass in the traditional culture

• Meadow creation and upkeep

• • Enclosing, ploughing and cultivation
  • Upkeep

• Use

• • Grazing
  • Green reaping
  • Hay making

• • • Reaping
    • Drying
    • Collecting and transporting
    • Storage
    • Consumption
    • Haystacks

The start of the changes

Changes in the 1960s

• Silage

• Mechanical harvesting

• The first tractors

• Baling

Progressive mechanisation

• Mechanisation of grass harvesting

• Changes in livestock farming associated with mechanisation

• Increased grass production

• Latest modifications to cattle feeding

• Changes linked to the livestock crisis

Growing grass on the Mediterranean side of the watershed

Other forage

• The Atlantic side of the watershed

• The Mediterranean side of the watershed

 

VIII. GROWING FLAX AND HEMP

The traditional crop of flax

Flax in the farmed landscape

Cropland

• Types of flax and sowing season

Production process

• Pulling up and softening

• Threshing flax seeds

• Soaking flax

Treating the strands

• Breaking

• Scrutching in the scrutcher

• Heckling

• Distaff

• Teasing

Spinning

• Spinning wheel

• Spindle

• Skeining

Bleaching

Winding

Making the fabric

Hemp

Esparto grass

 

FRUIT TREES. OLIVES AND VINES

IX. GROWING FRUIT TREES

Introduction

Growing fruit trees

• Mediterranean watershed

• Atlantic watershed

Planting and acquiring trees

Grafting

Care

Harvesting, storing and use of the fruit

 

X. GROWING OLIVES AND VINES

The olive

• Olive-growing areas

• Planting

• Varieties that are planted

• Care

• • Pruning

• • • Time of year
    • Tools

• • Ways of pruning
  • Use of the pruned olive-tree branches
  • Tilling and digging

• • • Time of year
    • Horse-driven and manual work
    • Mechanised work

• • Fertilising and irrigation

• • • Time of year for fertilising
    • Types of fertilisers
    • Ways of fertilising
    • Irrigation

• • Pests and treatments

• • • Winter
    • Spring
    • Summer

• Transplanting

Vines

• Historical background

• Traditional vine growing on the Mediterranean watershed

• • Varieties
  • Tilling
  • Planting
  • Pruning
  • Grafting
  • Primary-shoot thinning
  • Fertilising
  • Secondary-shoot thinning
  • Fruit set
  • Pests
  • Other tasks

• Vine growing today on the Mediterranean watershed

• • Preparing the land
  • Soil analysis
  • Pulling up the old vines and replanting
  • Vine varieties
  • Planting tasks
  • Planting procedures followed
  • Caring for the plants

• • • Grafting
    • Pruning
    • Fertilising and irrigation
    • Tilling and digging
    • Use of herbicides
    • Treatments
    • Pests

• Vine growing on the Atlantic watershed. Txakolina

• • Traditional vine growing
  • Trained vines
  • Tasks to care for the vines

 

XI. PRODUCTION OF OIL, WINE, TXAKOLI AND CIDER

Oil

• Harvesting the olives

• • Time of year
  • Method

• Cleaning the olives

• Making olive oil

• • Time of year
  • Delivering and weighing the olives. Their storage
  • Crushing
  • The hopper
  • The auger
  • The crusher
  • The beaters
  • The tank
  • The press
  • The stoning room
  • The oil vats
  • The waste holding tanks
  • Distribution of the oil
  • Other applications: soap and a medicated paste made of wax and oil

• Refurbishment of the La Equidad olive oil press, Moreda (A)

• Classification of the olive oil presses

• • Manual olive oil presses
  • Hydraulic olive oil presses
  • Olive oil presses with petrol engine
  • Electric olive oil presses

Appendices: Moreda (A) traditional olive oil presses

• Retén de la Iglesia olive oil press

• Tomás Laguardia olive oil press

Wine

• Traditional grape harvest on the Mediterranean watershed

• • Wine making

• • • Traditional wine-making at home
    • New procedures
    • Wine making in cave-winery

• • Changes to the wines

• • Garapitero or wine duty collector

• The grape harvest today on the Mediterranean watershed

• • Wine making in industrial wineries
  • Types of reds

• • • Whole grape or carbonic maceration system
    • Bordeaux system. Sorting, destemming and crushing method

• Other beverages

Txakoli

• Grape harvest

• Pressing: the wine press

• Contemporary changes

• Regulatory boards and denominations of origin

Cider

• Historical background

• Apples and their growing

• Apple diseases and pests

• Cider making

• • Pre-treatment
  • Crushing
  • Maceration
  • Pressing
  • Fermentation and storage
  • Bottling

• Changes to the cider

• • Acidity
  • Cloudiness
  • Forming of mould
  • Decolouring or blackening
  • Other changes to the cider

• Cultural and festive events associated with cider

• Drinks from cider

Appendix 1: Regulations of a cooperative winery

Appendix 2: Barrel manufacturing

 

FARM TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS

XII. TRADITIONAL FARMING EQUIPMENT

Implements for working the land

• Spades

• Hoes and their types

• • Hay hooks
  • Hand hoes. Rake
  • Large hoe

Pull-type implements to work the land

• The plough

• The plough in the Northern Basque Country

• • Nabarra
  • Goldea
  • Goldenabarra
  • Adareta
  • Urdamuturra
  • Golde itzulkorra
  • Swivel plough

• The plough in the Southern Basque Country (lying within Spain)

• • Gipuzkoa and Bizkaia

• • • Nabarra or knife to cut the ground
    • Exa
    • Golde txikia. Golde nagusia or swivel plough

• • Álava and Navarra

Tools to break up clods

Implements to break up and smooth the soil

• Rakes. Zaranda

• Aerator, are handia

• Arralda. Hesia. Trapa. Narria. Digging implements

• Alperra, roller

Implements to make furrows

• Cultivator

• Markoa, marker

Spike ploughs

• Itailak

• Nabasaia. Lauhortza

• Tragaz

• Plané

• Makatza

• Disk plough

Reaping instruments

• Sickle

• • Names
  • Zoqueta hand protector

• Scythe

• • Names

• Instruments to sharpen scythes and sickles

• Sharpening stone

• Instruments to sharpen different implements

Instruments to collect crops and grass

• Pitchfork

• Large pitchfork. Hayfork

• Iron pitchfork

• Metal pitchfork with curved spikes

• Sacking

• Small rake. Rake

• Manual baler

• Hook

Clearing instruments

• Aihotza, pruning hook

• Sickle

• Belagoia

Instruments to work with manure

Instruments to thresh wheat and corn

• Mayal, trailua, txibita

• Wheat threshing stones

• Threshers

Instruments for winnowing wheat

• Threshing board

• Winnowing blade

• Sieve, sifter

• Winnowing fork machine

Corn thresher

Shelling legumes

Instruments to cut wood

• Axe

• • Double-bladed axe
  • Sharpening
  • Wedge

• Saw, zerra Handsaw

• • Mitre saw
  • Felling trees using a mitre saw
  • Arpana. Saw for timber
  • Sawhorse

Utensils for harvesting fruit

• Pole, haga, kakoa

• Pincers

Utensils for looking after the vines

• Iron bar with a sharp point, iron bar

• Sickle. Gardening machete

• Hook. Billhook

• Harvesting and pruning shears

Transport tools

• Transporting on shoulders

• • Antzadila. Very flexible green branches.
  • Kakola
  • Sheets. Maniriak

• Transport instruments

• • Baskets: saskia, zarea, zarana. Carpancho, cunacho large baskets. Hampers and esparto grass baskets. Otarria, otzarea
  • Hand biers
  • Handcart

Appendix: Timber rafts

 

XIII. MEASUREMENTS UNITS

Introduction

The human body, yardstick

Length measurements

• Length measurement instruments

Surface measurements

Weight measurements

• Weighing instruments

Capacity measurements and instruments for aggregates

Capacity measurements for liquids

Measurements related to the sale of timber and the grass transporting

Changes

Equivalents

 

WORKFORCE

XIV. WORKFORCE AND ANIMAL POWER USED IN AGRICULTURE

Human power

• Shared work of the family

• More typical work of the men

• Women's involvement

• Tasks of the elderly

• Paid help

• Children's work

Neighbours helping each other

Contracting temporary workers

• Taking on day labourers in the public square

• Casual workers

• Transitions

Work garments

• Men's clothing

• Women's clothing

• Footwear

Animal power

• Cattle

• Horses

• Donkeys and Asses

• Nowadays

Appendix: Work conditions of the day labourers and day's wages in past centuries in Viana (N)

 

XV. ANIMAL TRANSPORT. THE CART, GURDIA

The cart. The hay wagon

• Northern Basque Country: Sara, Donoztiri, Uhartehiri, Garazi, Liginaga

• Navarra: Bera, Urdiain, Améscoa, Aoiz, Valle de Arce y Oroz-Betelu, Viana, San Martín de Unx, Obanos, Muez y Ugar, Valle de Roncal, Valtierra, Cárcar

• Álava: Valderejo, Bernedo, Moreda, Abezia, Apodaka, Treviño y La Puebla de Arganzón, Berganzo, Pipaón y Ribera Alta, Argandoña

• Gipuzkoa: Berastegi, Beasain, Hondarribia, Elgoibar, Telleriarte, Zerain

• Bizkaia: Gautegiz Arteaga, Abadiño, Amorebieta-Etxano, Bedarona, Urduliz, Valle de Carranza

The dray, lera

• Northern Basque Country

• Navarra

• Álava

• Gipuzkoa

• Bizkaia

The yoke

• Way of yoking the oxen

• Complements of the yoke

• • Tethering
  • Hood
  • Borders
  • Cart rope

• Horse yokes

• Horse and ass harnesses and implements

• • Pack saddle, saddlecloth and blanket
  • Headgear and blinkers
  • Draft collar. Leather draft collar
  • Draw reins

• Transport implements

• • Hooks
  • Biers
  • Saddlebags. Astotzarak
  • Other items

 

XVI. THE MECHANISATION OF AGRICULTURE

Introduction

Mechanisation in a locality of Álava

• The plough and its evolution

• Industrialisation of the farm implements

• The appearance of the tractor

Implements used during the farming year

• Preparing the land

• Sowing

• Care of the crops

• Harvesting

Mediterranean watershed

Atlantic watershed

Mechanisation today

• Mediterranean watershed

• Atlantic watershed

Machines in society and collective property

 

AGRICULTURAL TRADE AND LAND OWNERSHIP

XVII. OWN USE AND AGRICULTURAL TRADE

Buying seeds and plants

• Nowadays

Buying fertilisers

Making one's own implements

Buying implements

Repairing implements

Markets and agricultural fairs

Direct selling

Special fairs

Services providers by peddlers

• Butchery services

Livestock fairs

Preparing products, contracts and terms of payment

 

XVIII. OWNERSHIP SYSTEM. COMMUNAL PROPERTY AND PRIVATE PROPERTY

Communal property and its use

• Leasing commons

• Other uses of common upland

Tierras de Misericordia and Arca de Misericordia (ecclesiastic and secular wheat bank in time of hardship)

Owners who directly farmed their land

Owners who farmed by means of tenants

• Price of the rent and how it was set

• Payment in kind or in cash

• • Terms of payment
  • Payment times

Situation today

Overlapping of communal and private property

• Time of ruin

• Privately-owned trees on common land

 

BELIEFS AND RITES

XIX. PROTECTION CUSTOMS AND RITES IN AGRICULTURE

Protecting seedbeds and plants

• Protecting against pests

• Protecting against wild boars and badgers

• Protecting against rabbits

• Protecting against birds. Scarecrows

Rites and symbolic customs: solstice fires

• Customs around St. John the Baptist's Feast Day

• Old beliefs relating to the fertility of the earth

• Saints' images and magic

• Erecting the maypole

Blessing the fields and seeds

• Blessing and erecting crosses

• Blessed branches

• Rites to bless the fields

• Blessing seeds

Bell-ringing and spells against storms. Moving the saint's images

• Bell-ringing

• Pebbles collected at Easter

• Incantations from the church or chapel

• Praying to Saint Barbara

• Saints' images

Prayers

• St. Mark litanies

• Ascension prayers

• Occasional prayers

• Prayers at shrines

• Moving images in processions

Saints protecting crops

• St. Gregory of Ostia

• St. Isidore the Labourer

• St. Faustus the Labourer

Harvest thanksgiving