Table of contents
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LANDSCAPE
I. THE AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPE
Agricultural landscape of Álava
Agricultural landscape of Navarra
Agricultural landscape of Bizkaia
Agricultural landscape of Gipuzkoa
Landscapes of the Northern Basque Country (lying within France): three aspects
II. FARMED LANDS
Land types, quality and crops
General points
Types of land
Ploughing the land
- On common land
- On private property
Crops
Irrigation
Names and description of the farmed land
Spanish names and descriptions
Basque names and descriptions
Sizes of the plots
Situation and separation between fields
Stone walls
Existing enclosures
Marking of boundaries
Natural boundaries
Local roads
Meeting places. Social contact areas
Appendix: Jurisdiction boundary stones
CROPS
III. CROP DISTRIBUTION AND ROTATION. FARMING YEAR
General points
Crop distribution in the different types of fields
Crop rotation
Farming year
Seeds
Appendix: Sayings to do with agriculture
IV. PREPARING THE CULTIVATED LAND
First ploughing of a piece of land
Arable land
- The Mediterranean side of the watershed
- The Atlantic side of the watershed
Fertilising
- Mediterranean watershed
- Atlantic watershed
- Mediterranean watershed
- Atlantic watershed
Use of ash
Liming
V. SOWING AND CARING FOR THE CROPS
Sowing and planting
Crop diversity
Crops for human consumption
- Wheat
- Mediterranean watershed
- Atlantic watershed
- Corn
- Beans
- Broad beans
- Peas
- Chickpeas, lentils and aizkol
- Roots: carrot, parsley and beetroot
- Stems
- Potatoes
- Asparagus
- Leaves
- Leek
- Onions
- Garlic
- Leaves
- Lettuce
- Cabbages
- Chard
- Endive, chicory, spinach, celery, cardoon and borage
- Parsley
- Flowers: cauliflowers and artichokes
- Fruit
- Peppers and chilli
- Tomatoes
- Cucumbers, pumpkins and courgettes
- Melons and watermelons
- Aubergines
- Tobacco
- Growing tobacco in Gipuzkoa
- The seedbeds
- The growers
- Growing tobacco in Navarra
- Marihuana
Crops for livestock
- Oats
- Barley
- Rye
- Corn
- Turnips
- Beetroot
- Pumpkins
- Carrots
Industrial crops
Potato
Vegetables
Other crops
Ornamental plant crops
Caring for the crops
Weeding
- Cereals
- Pulses and beans
- Potatoes
- Vegetables
Use of pesticides
Fertilising cereals
Irrigation
VI. CROP HARVESTING AND PRESERVATION
Harvesting crops for human consumption
- Álava Mediterranean watershed: reaping, hauling, threshing, tossing, storing grain and straw; harvesting today and baling
- Navarra Mediterranean watershed: reaping, hauling, threshing, tossing, storing grain and straw; harvesting today and baling
- Atlantic watershed: reaping, threshing, tossing; storage
- Harvesting cereal today
Corn
Pulses and beans
- Beans and pods
- Broad beans, baba
- Peas
- Chickpeas and lentils
Underground vegetables
- Potatoes
- Asparagus
- Leeks; onions and garlic
Crops for livestock
Forage vegetables
- Turnips
- Beetroot
- Pumpkins
- Potatoes
Storage and preservation
Flour mills
Introduction
Mills in the surveyed populations
- Álava
- Bizkaia
- Gipuzkoa
- Navarra
The components of a flour mill
Milling
Communal and neighbourhood mills
VII. GRASS AND OTHER FORAGE
Grass in the traditional culture
- Enclosing, ploughing and cultivation
- Upkeep
- Grazing
- Green reaping
- Hay making
- Reaping
- Drying
- Collecting and transporting
- Storage
- Consumption
- Haystacks
The start of the changes
Changes in the 1960s
Mechanical harvesting
Baling
Progressive mechanisation
Mechanisation of grass harvesting
Changes in livestock farming associated with mechanisation
Latest modifications to cattle feeding
Growing grass on the Mediterranean side of the watershed
Other forage
The Atlantic side of the watershed
VIII. GROWING FLAX AND HEMP
The traditional crop of flax
Flax in the farmed landscape
Cropland
Types of flax and sowing season
Production process
Pulling up and softening
Soaking flax
Treating the strands
Heckling
Spinning
Spinning wheel
Skeining
Bleaching
Winding
Making the fabric
Hemp
Esparto grass
FRUIT TREES. OLIVES AND VINES
IX. GROWING FRUIT TREES
Introduction
Growing fruit trees
Mediterranean watershed
Atlantic watershed
Planting and acquiring trees
Grafting
Care
Harvesting, storing and use of the fruit
X. GROWING OLIVES AND VINES
The olive
Varieties that are planted
Care
- Pruning
- Time of year
- Tools
- Ways of pruning
- Use of the pruned olive-tree branches
- Tilling and digging
- Time of year
- Horse-driven and manual work
- Mechanised work
- Fertilising and irrigation
- Time of year for fertilising
- Types of fertilisers
- Ways of fertilising
- Irrigation
- Pests and treatments
- Winter
- Spring
- Summer
Transplanting
Vines
Historical background
Traditional vine growing on the Mediterranean watershed
- Varieties
- Tilling
- Planting
- Pruning
- Grafting
- Primary-shoot thinning
- Fertilising
- Secondary-shoot thinning
- Fruit set
- Pests
- Other tasks
- Preparing the land
- Soil analysis
- Pulling up the old vines and replanting
- Vine varieties
- Planting tasks
- Planting procedures followed
- Caring for the plants
- Grafting
- Pruning
- Fertilising and irrigation
- Tilling and digging
- Use of herbicides
- Treatments
- Pests
- Traditional vine growing
- Trained vines
- Tasks to care for the vines
XI. PRODUCTION OF OIL, WINE, TXAKOLI AND CIDER
Oil
- Time of year
- Method
- Time of year
- Delivering and weighing the olives. Their storage
- Crushing
- The hopper
- The auger
- The crusher
- The beaters
- The tank
- The press
- The stoning room
- The oil vats
- The waste holding tanks
- Distribution of the oil
- Other applications: soap and a medicated paste made of wax and oil
Refurbishment of the La Equidad olive oil press, Moreda (A)
- Manual olive oil presses
- Hydraulic olive oil presses
- Olive oil presses with petrol engine
- Electric olive oil presses
Appendices: Moreda (A) traditional olive oil presses
Retén de la Iglesia olive oil press
Wine
- Wine making
- Traditional wine-making at home
- New procedures
- Wine making in cave-winery
- Changes to the wines
- Garapitero or wine duty collector
- Wine making in industrial wineries
- Types of reds
- Whole grape or carbonic maceration system
- Bordeaux system. Sorting, destemming and crushing method
Txakoli
Grape harvest
Pressing: the wine press
Contemporary changes
Regulatory boards and denominations of origin
Cider
Historical background
Apples and their growing
Apple diseases and pests
Cider making
- Pre-treatment
- Crushing
- Maceration
- Pressing
- Fermentation and storage
- Bottling
Changes to the cider
- Acidity
- Cloudiness
- Forming of mould
- Decolouring or blackening
- Other changes to the cider
Cultural and festive events associated with cider
Drinks from cider
Appendix 1: Regulations of a cooperative winery
Appendix 2: Barrel manufacturing
FARM TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS
XII. TRADITIONAL FARMING EQUIPMENT
Implements for working the land
- Hay hooks
- Hand hoes. Rake
- Large hoe
Pull-type implements to work the land
- Nabarra
- Goldea
- Goldenabarra
- Adareta
- Urdamuturra
- Golde itzulkorra
- Swivel plough
- Gipuzkoa and Bizkaia
- Nabarra or knife to cut the ground
- Exa
- Golde txikia. Golde nagusia or swivel plough
- Álava and Navarra
Tools to break up clods
Implements to break up and smooth the soil
Aerator, are handia
Implements to make furrows
Spike ploughs
Nabasaia. Lauhortza
Tragaz
Reaping instruments
- Names
- Zoqueta hand protector
Scythe
- Names
Instruments to collect crops and grass
Iron pitchfork
Clearing instruments
Aihotza, pruning hook
Sickle
Instruments to work with manure
Instruments to thresh wheat and corn
Mayal, trailua, txibita
Instruments for winnowing wheat
Corn thresher
Shelling legumes
Instruments to cut wood
- Double-bladed axe
- Sharpening
- Wedge
- Mitre saw
- Felling trees using a mitre saw
- Arpana. Saw for timber
- Sawhorse
Utensils for harvesting fruit
Pincers
Utensils for looking after the vines
Iron bar with a sharp point, iron bar
Sickle. Gardening machete
Harvesting and pruning shears
Transport tools
- Antzadila. Very flexible green branches.
- Kakola
- Sheets. Maniriak
Transport instruments
- Baskets: saskia, zarea, zarana. Carpancho, cunacho large baskets. Hampers and esparto grass baskets. Otarria, otzarea
- Hand biers
- Handcart
Appendix: Timber rafts
XIII. MEASUREMENTS UNITS
Introduction
The human body, yardstick
Length measurements
Surface measurements
Weight measurements
Capacity measurements and instruments for aggregates
Capacity measurements for liquids
Measurements related to the sale of timber and the grass transporting
Changes
Equivalents
WORKFORCE
XIV. WORKFORCE AND ANIMAL POWER USED IN AGRICULTURE
Human power
Shared work of the family
Neighbours helping each other
Contracting temporary workers
Work garments
Animal power
Appendix: Work conditions of the day labourers and day's wages in past centuries in Viana (N)
XV. ANIMAL TRANSPORT. THE CART, GURDIA
The cart. The hay wagon
The dray, lera
The yoke
- Tethering
- Hood
- Borders
- Cart rope
- Pack saddle, saddlecloth and blanket
- Headgear and blinkers
- Draft collar. Leather draft collar
- Draw reins
- Hooks
- Biers
- Saddlebags. Astotzarak
- Other items
XVI. THE MECHANISATION OF AGRICULTURE
Introduction
Mechanisation in a locality of Álava
Implements used during the farming year
Mediterranean watershed
Atlantic watershed
Mechanisation today
Machines in society and collective property
AGRICULTURAL TRADE AND LAND OWNERSHIP
XVII. OWN USE AND AGRICULTURAL TRADE
Buying seeds and plants
Buying fertilisers
Making one's own implements
Buying implements
Repairing implements
Markets and agricultural fairs
Direct selling
Special fairs
Services providers by peddlers
Livestock fairs
Preparing products, contracts and terms of payment
XVIII. OWNERSHIP SYSTEM. COMMUNAL PROPERTY AND PRIVATE PROPERTY
Communal property and its use
Tierras de Misericordia and Arca de Misericordia (ecclesiastic and secular wheat bank in time of hardship)
Owners who directly farmed their land
Owners who farmed by means of tenants
- Terms of payment
- Payment times
Situation today
Overlapping of communal and private property