Table of contents

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LANDSCAPE

I. THE AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPE

Agricultural landscape of Álava

Agricultural landscape of Navarra

Agricultural landscape of Bizkaia

Agricultural landscape of Gipuzkoa

Landscapes of the Northern Basque Country (lying within France): three aspects

II. FARMED LANDS

Land types, quality and crops

General points

Types of land

Ploughing the land

    • On common land
    • On private property

Crops

Irrigation

Names and description of the farmed land

Spanish names and descriptions

Basque names and descriptions

Sizes of the plots

Situation and separation between fields

Stone walls

Existing enclosures

Marking of boundaries

Natural boundaries

Local roads

Meeting places. Social contact areas

Appendix: Jurisdiction boundary stones

CROPS

III. CROP DISTRIBUTION AND ROTATION. FARMING YEAR

General points

Crop distribution in the different types of fields

Crop rotation

Farming year

Seeds

Appendix: Sayings to do with agriculture

IV. PREPARING THE CULTIVATED LAND

First ploughing of a piece of land

Arable land

    • The Mediterranean side of the watershed
    • The Atlantic side of the watershed

Fertilising

    • Mediterranean watershed
    • Atlantic watershed
    • Mediterranean watershed
    • Atlantic watershed

Use of ash

Liming

V. SOWING AND CARING FOR THE CROPS

Sowing and planting

Crop diversity

Crops for human consumption

    • Wheat
      • Mediterranean watershed
      • Atlantic watershed
    • Corn
    • Beans
    • Broad beans
    • Peas
    • Chickpeas, lentils and aizkol
    • Roots: carrot, parsley and beetroot
    • Stems
      • Potatoes
      • Asparagus
    • Leaves
      • Leek
      • Onions
      • Garlic
    • Leaves
      • Lettuce
      • Cabbages
      • Chard
      • Endive, chicory, spinach, celery, cardoon and borage
      • Parsley
    • Flowers: cauliflowers and artichokes
    • Fruit
      • Peppers and chilli
      • Tomatoes
      • Cucumbers, pumpkins and courgettes
      • Melons and watermelons
      • Aubergines
    • Tobacco
      • Growing tobacco in Gipuzkoa
      • The seedbeds
      • The growers
      • Growing tobacco in Navarra
    • Marihuana

Crops for livestock

    • Oats
    • Barley
    • Rye
    • Corn
    • Turnips
    • Beetroot
    • Pumpkins
    • Carrots

Industrial crops

Potato

Vegetables

Other crops

Ornamental plant crops

Caring for the crops

Weeding

    • Cereals
    • Pulses and beans
    • Potatoes
    • Vegetables

Use of pesticides

Fertilising cereals

Irrigation

VI. CROP HARVESTING AND PRESERVATION

Harvesting crops for human consumption

    • Álava Mediterranean watershed: reaping, hauling, threshing, tossing, storing grain and straw; harvesting today and baling
    • Navarra Mediterranean watershed: reaping, hauling, threshing, tossing, storing grain and straw; harvesting today and baling
    • Atlantic watershed: reaping, threshing, tossing; storage
    • Harvesting cereal today

Corn

Pulses and beans

    • Beans and pods
    • Broad beans, baba
    • Peas
    • Chickpeas and lentils

Underground vegetables

    • Potatoes
    • Asparagus
    • Leeks; onions and garlic

Crops for livestock

Forage vegetables

    • Turnips
    • Beetroot
    • Pumpkins
    • Potatoes

Storage and preservation

Flour mills

Introduction

Mills in the surveyed populations

    • Álava
    • Bizkaia
    • Gipuzkoa
    • Navarra

The components of a flour mill

Milling

Communal and neighbourhood mills

VII. GRASS AND OTHER FORAGE

Grass in the traditional culture

    • Enclosing, ploughing and cultivation
    • Upkeep
    • Grazing
    • Green reaping
    • Hay making
      • Reaping
      • Drying
      • Collecting and transporting
      • Storage
      • Consumption
      • Haystacks

The start of the changes

Changes in the 1960s

Mechanical harvesting

Baling

Progressive mechanisation

Mechanisation of grass harvesting

Changes in livestock farming associated with mechanisation

Latest modifications to cattle feeding

Growing grass on the Mediterranean side of the watershed

Other forage

The Atlantic side of the watershed

VIII. GROWING FLAX AND HEMP

The traditional crop of flax

Flax in the farmed landscape

Cropland

Types of flax and sowing season

Production process

Pulling up and softening

Soaking flax

Treating the strands

Heckling

Spinning

Spinning wheel

Skeining

Bleaching

Winding

Making the fabric

Hemp

Esparto grass

FRUIT TREES. OLIVES AND VINES

IX. GROWING FRUIT TREES

Introduction

Growing fruit trees

Mediterranean watershed

Atlantic watershed

Planting and acquiring trees

Grafting

Care

Harvesting, storing and use of the fruit

X. GROWING OLIVES AND VINES

The olive

Varieties that are planted

Care

    • Pruning
      • Time of year
      • Tools
    • Ways of pruning
    • Use of the pruned olive-tree branches
    • Tilling and digging
      • Time of year
      • Horse-driven and manual work
      • Mechanised work
    • Fertilising and irrigation
      • Time of year for fertilising
      • Types of fertilisers
      • Ways of fertilising
      • Irrigation
    • Pests and treatments
      • Winter
      • Spring
      • Summer

Transplanting

Vines

Historical background

Traditional vine growing on the Mediterranean watershed

    • Varieties
    • Tilling
    • Planting
    • Pruning
    • Grafting
    • Primary-shoot thinning
    • Fertilising
    • Secondary-shoot thinning
    • Fruit set
    • Pests
    • Other tasks
    • Preparing the land
    • Soil analysis
    • Pulling up the old vines and replanting
    • Vine varieties
    • Planting tasks
    • Planting procedures followed
    • Caring for the plants
      • Grafting
      • Pruning
      • Fertilising and irrigation
      • Tilling and digging
      • Use of herbicides
      • Treatments
      • Pests
    • Traditional vine growing
    • Trained vines
    • Tasks to care for the vines

XI. PRODUCTION OF OIL, WINE, TXAKOLI AND CIDER

Oil

    • Time of year
    • Method
    • Time of year
    • Delivering and weighing the olives. Their storage
    • Crushing
    • The hopper
    • The auger
    • The crusher
    • The beaters
    • The tank
    • The press
    • The stoning room
    • The oil vats
    • The waste holding tanks
    • Distribution of the oil
    • Other applications: soap and a medicated paste made of wax and oil

Refurbishment of the La Equidad olive oil press, Moreda (A)

    • Manual olive oil presses
    • Hydraulic olive oil presses
    • Olive oil presses with petrol engine
    • Electric olive oil presses

Appendices: Moreda (A) traditional olive oil presses

Retén de la Iglesia olive oil press

Wine

    • Wine making
      • Traditional wine-making at home
      • New procedures
      • Wine making in cave-winery
    • Changes to the wines
    • Garapitero or wine duty collector
    • Wine making in industrial wineries
    • Types of reds
      • Whole grape or carbonic maceration system
      • Bordeaux system. Sorting, destemming and crushing method

Txakoli

Grape harvest

Pressing: the wine press

Contemporary changes

Regulatory boards and denominations of origin

Cider

Historical background

Apples and their growing

Apple diseases and pests

Cider making

    • Pre-treatment
    • Crushing
    • Maceration
    • Pressing
    • Fermentation and storage
    • Bottling

Changes to the cider

    • Acidity
    • Cloudiness
    • Forming of mould
    • Decolouring or blackening
    • Other changes to the cider

Cultural and festive events associated with cider

Drinks from cider

Appendix 1: Regulations of a cooperative winery

Appendix 2: Barrel manufacturing

FARM TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS

XII. TRADITIONAL FARMING EQUIPMENT

Implements for working the land

    • Hay hooks
    • Hand hoes. Rake
    • Large hoe

Pull-type implements to work the land

    • Nabarra
    • Goldea
    • Goldenabarra
    • Adareta
    • Urdamuturra
    • Golde itzulkorra
    • Swivel plough
    • Gipuzkoa and Bizkaia
      • Nabarra or knife to cut the ground
      • Exa
      • Golde txikia. Golde nagusia or swivel plough
    • Álava and Navarra

Tools to break up clods

Implements to break up and smooth the soil

Aerator, are handia

Implements to make furrows

Spike ploughs

Nabasaia. Lauhortza

Tragaz

Reaping instruments

    • Names
    • Zoqueta hand protector

Scythe

    • Names

Instruments to collect crops and grass

Iron pitchfork

Clearing instruments

Aihotza, pruning hook

Sickle

Instruments to work with manure

Instruments to thresh wheat and corn

Mayal, trailua, txibita

Instruments for winnowing wheat

Corn thresher

Shelling legumes

Instruments to cut wood

    • Double-bladed axe
    • Sharpening
    • Wedge
    • Mitre saw
    • Felling trees using a mitre saw
    • Arpana. Saw for timber
    • Sawhorse

Utensils for harvesting fruit

Pincers

Utensils for looking after the vines

Iron bar with a sharp point, iron bar

Sickle. Gardening machete

Harvesting and pruning shears

Transport tools

    • Antzadila. Very flexible green branches.
    • Kakola
    • Sheets. Maniriak

Transport instruments

    • Baskets: saskia, zarea, zarana. Carpancho, cunacho large baskets. Hampers and esparto grass baskets. Otarria, otzarea
    • Hand biers
    • Handcart

Appendix: Timber rafts

XIII. MEASUREMENTS UNITS

Introduction

The human body, yardstick

Length measurements

Surface measurements

Weight measurements

Capacity measurements and instruments for aggregates

Capacity measurements for liquids

Measurements related to the sale of timber and the grass transporting

Changes

Equivalents

WORKFORCE

XIV. WORKFORCE AND ANIMAL POWER USED IN AGRICULTURE

Human power

Shared work of the family

Neighbours helping each other

Contracting temporary workers

Work garments

Animal power

Appendix: Work conditions of the day labourers and day's wages in past centuries in Viana (N)

XV. ANIMAL TRANSPORT. THE CART, GURDIA

The cart. The hay wagon

The dray, lera

The yoke

    • Tethering
    • Hood
    • Borders
    • Cart rope
    • Pack saddle, saddlecloth and blanket
    • Headgear and blinkers
    • Draft collar. Leather draft collar
    • Draw reins
    • Hooks
    • Biers
    • Saddlebags. Astotzarak
    • Other items

XVI. THE MECHANISATION OF AGRICULTURE

Introduction

Mechanisation in a locality of Álava

Implements used during the farming year

Mediterranean watershed

Atlantic watershed

Mechanisation today

Machines in society and collective property

AGRICULTURAL TRADE AND LAND OWNERSHIP

XVII. OWN USE AND AGRICULTURAL TRADE

Buying seeds and plants

Buying fertilisers

Making one's own implements

Buying implements

Repairing implements

Markets and agricultural fairs

Direct selling

Special fairs

Services providers by peddlers

Livestock fairs

Preparing products, contracts and terms of payment

XVIII. OWNERSHIP SYSTEM. COMMUNAL PROPERTY AND PRIVATE PROPERTY

Communal property and its use

Tierras de Misericordia and Arca de Misericordia (ecclesiastic and secular wheat bank in time of hardship)

Owners who directly farmed their land

Owners who farmed by means of tenants

    • Terms of payment
    • Payment times

Situation today

Overlapping of communal and private property

BELIEFS AND RITES