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	==== [[Piedra_de_trillar_trigo_ogia_jotzeko_harria|Wheat threshing stones]] ====		==== [[Piedra_de_trillar_trigo_ogia_jotzeko_harria|Wheat threshing stones]] ====
−	*[[Trillos|Threshers]]	+	==== [[Trillos|Threshers]] ====
	=== [[Instrumentos_para_aventar_el_trigo|Instruments for winnowing wheat]] ===		=== [[Instrumentos_para_aventar_el_trigo|Instruments for winnowing wheat]] ===

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Revisión del 10:16 21 feb 2019

LANDSCAPE

I. THE AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPE

Agricultural landscape of Álava

Agricultural landscape of Navarra

Agricultural landscape of Bizkaia

Agricultural landscape of Gipuzkoa

Landscapes of the Northern Basque Country (lying within France): three aspects

 

II. FARMED LANDS

Land types, quality and crops

General points

Types of land

Ploughing the land

• First ploughing

• • On common land
  • On private property

Crops

Irrigation

Names and description of the farmed land

Spanish names and descriptions

Basque names and descriptions

Sizes of the plots

• Land consolidation

Situation and separation between fields

Stone walls

• Predominantly open fields

Existing enclosures

Marking of boundaries

Natural boundaries

Local roads

Meeting places. Social contact areas

Appendix: Jurisdiction boundary stones

 

CROPS

III. CROP DISTRIBUTION AND ROTATION. FARMING YEAR

General points

• Growth periods and days

Influence of the moon

Crop distribution in the different types of fields

Crop rotation

Farming year

• Álava Mediterranean watershed

• Navarra Mediterranean watershed

• Atlantic watershed

• Cycle of each crop

Seeds

• Seed selection

• Obtaining and preserving seeds

• Preparing seeds for sowing

• Preparing seedbeds or sowings

Appendix: Sayings to do with agriculture

 

IV. PREPARING THE CULTIVATED LAND

First ploughing of a piece of land

• Ploughing scrubland or woodland

• Ploughing pastureland

• Modern techniques

Arable land

• Preparing the fallow land

• Preparing the cultivated land

• • The Mediterranean side of the watershed
  • The Atlantic side of the watershed

Fertilising

• Manure

• • Mediterranean watershed
  • Atlantic watershed

• Mineral and synthetic fertilisers

• • Mediterranean watershed
  • Atlantic watershed

• Compost and organic fertilisers

Use of ash

Liming

• Lime production

• Agricultural use of lime

 

V. SOWING AND CARING FOR THE CROPS

Sowing and planting

Crop diversity

Crops for human consumption

• Cereals

• • Wheat

• • • Mediterranean watershed
    • Atlantic watershed

• • Corn

• Pulses and beans

• • Beans
  • Broad beans
  • Peas
  • Chickpeas, lentils and aizkol

• Underground vegetables

• • Roots: carrot, parsley and beetroot
  • Stems

• • • Potatoes
    • Asparagus

• • Leaves

• • • Leek
    • Onions
    • Garlic

• Above ground vegetables

• • Leaves

• • • Lettuce
    • Cabbages
    • Chard
    • Endive, chicory, spinach, celery, cardoon and borage
    • Parsley

• • Flowers: cauliflowers and artichokes
  • Fruit

• • • Peppers and chilli
    • Tomatoes
    • Cucumbers, pumpkins and courgettes
    • Melons and watermelons
    • Aubergines

• Medicinal plants

• Drugs

• • Tobacco

• • • Growing tobacco in Gipuzkoa
    • The seedbeds
    • The growers
    • Growing tobacco in Navarra

• • Marihuana

Crops for livestock

• Cereals

• • Oats
  • Barley
  • Rye
  • Corn

• Legumes

• Small fruit

• Forage vegetables

• • Turnips
  • Beetroot
  • Pumpkins
  • Carrots

Industrial crops

Sugar beet

Potato

Vegetables

Other crops

• Mushrooms

Ornamental plant crops

Caring for the crops

Weeding

• • Cereals
  • Pulses and beans
  • Potatoes
  • Vegetables

Use of pesticides

Fertilising cereals

Irrigation

 

VI. CROP HARVESTING AND PRESERVATION

Harvesting crops for human consumption

• Evolution of reaping and threshing cereals

• • Álava Mediterranean watershed: reaping, hauling, threshing, tossing, storing grain and straw; harvesting today and baling
  • Navarra Mediterranean watershed: reaping, hauling, threshing, tossing, storing grain and straw; harvesting today and baling
  • Atlantic watershed: reaping, threshing, tossing; storage
  • Harvesting cereal today

Corn

Pulses and beans

• • Beans and pods
  • Broad beans, baba
  • Peas
  • Chickpeas and lentils

Underground vegetables

• • Potatoes
  • Asparagus
  • Leeks; onions and garlic

• Above ground vegetables

Crops for livestock

• Cereals

Forage vegetables

• • Turnips
  • Beetroot
  • Pumpkins
  • Potatoes

Storage and preservation

Flour mills

Introduction

• Mill types

Mills in the surveyed populations

• • Álava
  • Bizkaia
  • Gipuzkoa
  • Navarra

• Decline of the mills

The components of a flour mill

Milling

• Milling year

Communal and neighbourhood mills

 

VII. GRASS AND OTHER FORAGE

Grass in the traditional culture

Meadow creation and upkeep

• • Enclosing, ploughing and cultivation
  • Upkeep

• Use

• • Grazing
  • Green reaping
  • Hay making

• • • Reaping
    • Drying
    • Collecting and transporting
    • Storage
    • Consumption
    • Haystacks

The start of the changes

Changes in the 1960s

• Silage

Mechanical harvesting

• The first tractors

Baling

Progressive mechanisation

Mechanisation of grass harvesting

Changes in livestock farming associated with mechanisation

• Increased grass production

Latest modifications to cattle feeding

• Changes linked to the livestock crisis

Growing grass on the Mediterranean side of the watershed

Other forage

The Atlantic side of the watershed

The Mediterranean side of the watershed

 

VIII. GROWING FLAX AND HEMP

The traditional crop of flax

Flax in the farmed landscape

Cropland

Types of flax and sowing season

Production process

Pulling up and softening

• Threshing flax seeds

Soaking flax

Treating the strands

• Breaking

Scrutching in the scrutcher

Heckling

• Distaff

Teasing

Spinning

Spinning wheel

Spindle

Skeining

Bleaching

Winding

Making the fabric

Hemp

Esparto grass

 

FRUIT TREES. OLIVES AND VINES

IX. GROWING FRUIT TREES

Introduction

Growing fruit trees

Mediterranean watershed

Atlantic watershed

Planting and acquiring trees

Grafting

Care

Harvesting, storing and use of the fruit

 

X. GROWING OLIVES AND VINES

The olive

• Olive-growing areas

• Planting

Varieties that are planted

Care

• • Pruning

• • • Time of year
    • Tools

• • Ways of pruning
  • Use of the pruned olive-tree branches
  • Tilling and digging

• • • Time of year
    • Horse-driven and manual work
    • Mechanised work

• • Fertilising and irrigation

• • • Time of year for fertilising
    • Types of fertilisers
    • Ways of fertilising
    • Irrigation

• • Pests and treatments

• • • Winter
    • Spring
    • Summer

Transplanting

Vines

Historical background

Traditional vine growing on the Mediterranean watershed

• • Varieties
  • Tilling
  • Planting
  • Pruning
  • Grafting
  • Primary-shoot thinning
  • Fertilising
  • Secondary-shoot thinning
  • Fruit set
  • Pests
  • Other tasks

• Vine growing today on the Mediterranean watershed

• • Preparing the land
  • Soil analysis
  • Pulling up the old vines and replanting
  • Vine varieties
  • Planting tasks
  • Planting procedures followed
  • Caring for the plants

• • • Grafting
    • Pruning
    • Fertilising and irrigation
    • Tilling and digging
    • Use of herbicides
    • Treatments
    • Pests

Vine growing on the Atlantic watershed. Txakolina

• • Traditional vine growing
  • Trained vines
  • Tasks to care for the vines

 

XI. PRODUCTION OF OIL, WINE, TXAKOLI AND CIDER

Oil

• Harvesting the olives

• • Time of year
  • Method

Cleaning the olives

• Making olive oil

• • Time of year
  • Delivering and weighing the olives. Their storage
  • Crushing
  • The hopper
  • The auger
  • The crusher
  • The beaters
  • The tank
  • The press
  • The stoning room
  • The oil vats
  • The waste holding tanks
  • Distribution of the oil
  • Other applications: soap and a medicated paste made of wax and oil

Refurbishment of the La Equidad olive oil press, Moreda (A)

• Classification of the olive oil presses

• • Manual olive oil presses
  • Hydraulic olive oil presses
  • Olive oil presses with petrol engine
  • Electric olive oil presses

Appendices: Moreda (A) traditional olive oil presses

Retén de la Iglesia olive oil press

Tomás Laguardia olive oil press

Wine

• Traditional grape harvest on the Mediterranean watershed

• • Wine making

• • • Traditional wine-making at home
    • New procedures
    • Wine making in cave-winery

• • Changes to the wines

• • Garapitero or wine duty collector

• The grape harvest today on the Mediterranean watershed

• • Wine making in industrial wineries
  • Types of reds

• • • Whole grape or carbonic maceration system
    • Bordeaux system. Sorting, destemming and crushing method

Other beverages

Txakoli

Grape harvest

Pressing: the wine press

Contemporary changes

Regulatory boards and denominations of origin

Cider

Historical background

Apples and their growing

Apple diseases and pests

Cider making

• • Pre-treatment
  • Crushing
  • Maceration
  • Pressing
  • Fermentation and storage
  • Bottling

Changes to the cider

• • Acidity
  • Cloudiness
  • Forming of mould
  • Decolouring or blackening
  • Other changes to the cider

Cultural and festive events associated with cider

Drinks from cider

Appendix 1: Regulations of a cooperative winery

Appendix 2: Barrel manufacturing

 

FARM TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS

XII. TRADITIONAL FARMING EQUIPMENT

Implements for working the land

• Spades

• Hoes and their types

• • Hay hooks
  • Hand hoes. Rake
  • Large hoe

Pull-type implements to work the land

• The plough

• The plough in the Northern Basque Country

• • Nabarra
  • Goldea
  • Goldenabarra
  • Adareta
  • Urdamuturra
  • Golde itzulkorra
  • Swivel plough

The plough in the Southern Basque Country (lying within Spain)

• • Gipuzkoa and Bizkaia

• • • Nabarra or knife to cut the ground
    • Exa
    • Golde txikia. Golde nagusia or swivel plough

• • Álava and Navarra

Tools to break up clods

Implements to break up and smooth the soil

• Rakes. Zaranda

Aerator, are handia

• Arralda. Hesia. Trapa. Narria. Digging implements

• Alperra, roller

Implements to make furrows

Cultivator

• Markoa, marker

Spike ploughs

• Itailak

Nabasaia. Lauhortza

Tragaz

• Plané

• Makatza

• Disk plough

Reaping instruments

Sickle

• • Names
  • Zoqueta hand protector

Scythe

• • Names

• Instruments to sharpen scythes and sickles

Sharpening stone

Instruments to sharpen different implements

Instruments to collect crops and grass

Pitchfork

Large pitchfork. Hayfork

Iron pitchfork

Metal pitchfork with curved spikes

• Sacking

• Small rake. Rake

Manual baler

Hook

Clearing instruments

Aihotza, pruning hook

Sickle

• Belagoia

Instruments to work with manure

Instruments to thresh wheat and corn

Mayal, trailua, txibita

Wheat threshing stones

Threshers

Instruments for winnowing wheat

• Threshing board

Winnowing blade

• Sieve, sifter

• Winnowing fork machine

Corn thresher

Shelling legumes

Instruments to cut wood

Axe

• • Double-bladed axe
  • Sharpening
  • Wedge

Saw, zerra Handsaw

• • Mitre saw
  • Felling trees using a mitre saw
  • Arpana. Saw for timber
  • Sawhorse

Utensils for harvesting fruit

Pole, haga, kakoa

Pincers

Utensils for looking after the vines

Iron bar with a sharp point, iron bar

Sickle. Gardening machete

• Hook. Billhook

Harvesting and pruning shears

Transport tools

• Transporting on shoulders

• • Antzadila. Very flexible green branches.
  • Kakola
  • Sheets. Maniriak

Transport instruments

• • Baskets: saskia, zarea, zarana. Carpancho, cunacho large baskets. Hampers and esparto grass baskets. Otarria, otzarea
  • Hand biers
  • Handcart

Appendix: Timber rafts

 

XIII. MEASUREMENTS UNITS

Introduction

The human body, yardstick

Length measurements

• Length measurement instruments

Surface measurements

Weight measurements

Weighing instruments

Capacity measurements and instruments for aggregates

Capacity measurements for liquids

Measurements related to the sale of timber and the grass transporting

Changes

Equivalents

 

WORKFORCE

XIV. WORKFORCE AND ANIMAL POWER USED IN AGRICULTURE

Human power

Shared work of the family

More typical work of the men

• Women's involvement

Tasks of the elderly

• Paid help

Children's work

Neighbours helping each other

Contracting temporary workers

• Taking on day labourers in the public square

• Casual workers

• Transitions

Work garments

• Men's clothing

• Women's clothing

• Footwear

Animal power

• Cattle

• Horses

• Donkeys and Asses

• Nowadays

Appendix: Work conditions of the day labourers and day's wages in past centuries in Viana (N)

 

XV. ANIMAL TRANSPORT. THE CART, GURDIA

The cart. The hay wagon

• Northern Basque Country: Sara, Donoztiri, Uhartehiri, Garazi, Liginaga

• Navarra: Bera, Urdiain, Améscoa, Aoiz, Valle de Arce y Oroz-Betelu, Viana, San Martín de Unx, Obanos, Muez y Ugar, Valle de Roncal, Valtierra, Cárcar

• Álava: Valderejo, Bernedo, Moreda, Abezia, Apodaka, Treviño y La Puebla de Arganzón, Berganzo, Pipaón y Ribera Alta, Argandoña

Gipuzkoa: Berastegi, Beasain, Hondarribia, Elgoibar, Telleriarte, Zerain

• Bizkaia: Gautegiz Arteaga, Abadiño, Amorebieta-Etxano, Bedarona, Urduliz, Valle de Carranza

The dray, lera

• Northern Basque Country

Navarra

• Álava

Gipuzkoa

Bizkaia

The yoke

• Way of yoking the oxen

• Complements of the yoke

• • Tethering
  • Hood
  • Borders
  • Cart rope

Horse yokes

• Horse and ass harnesses and implements

• • Pack saddle, saddlecloth and blanket
  • Headgear and blinkers
  • Draft collar. Leather draft collar
  • Draw reins

• Transport implements

• • Hooks
  • Biers
  • Saddlebags. Astotzarak
  • Other items

 

XVI. THE MECHANISATION OF AGRICULTURE

Introduction

Mechanisation in a locality of Álava

• The plough and its evolution

• Industrialisation of the farm implements

• The appearance of the tractor

Implements used during the farming year

• Preparing the land

• Sowing

• Care of the crops

• Harvesting

Mediterranean watershed

Atlantic watershed

Mechanisation today

• Mediterranean watershed

• Atlantic watershed

Machines in society and collective property

 

AGRICULTURAL TRADE AND LAND OWNERSHIP

XVII. OWN USE AND AGRICULTURAL TRADE

Buying seeds and plants

• Nowadays

Buying fertilisers

Making one's own implements

Buying implements

Repairing implements

Markets and agricultural fairs

Direct selling

Special fairs

Services providers by peddlers

• Butchery services

Livestock fairs

Preparing products, contracts and terms of payment

 

XVIII. OWNERSHIP SYSTEM. COMMUNAL PROPERTY AND PRIVATE PROPERTY

Communal property and its use

• Leasing commons

• Other uses of common upland

Tierras de Misericordia and Arca de Misericordia (ecclesiastic and secular wheat bank in time of hardship)

Owners who directly farmed their land

Owners who farmed by means of tenants

• Price of the rent and how it was set

• Payment in kind or in cash

• • Terms of payment
  • Payment times

Situation today

Overlapping of communal and private property

• Time of ruin

• Privately-owned trees on common land

 

BELIEFS AND RITES

XIX. PROTECTION CUSTOMS AND RITES IN AGRICULTURE

Protecting seedbeds and plants

• Protecting against pests

• Protecting against wild boars and badgers

• Protecting against rabbits

• Protecting against birds. Scarecrows

Rites and symbolic customs: solstice fires

• Customs around St. John the Baptist's Feast Day

• Old beliefs relating to the fertility of the earth

• Saints' images and magic

• Erecting the maypole

Blessing the fields and seeds

• Blessing and erecting crosses

• Blessed branches

• Rites to bless the fields

• Blessing seeds

Bell-ringing and spells against storms. Moving the saint's images

• Bell-ringing

• Pebbles collected at Easter

• Incantations from the church or chapel

• Praying to Saint Barbara

• Saints' images

Prayers

• St. Mark litanies

• Ascension prayers

• Occasional prayers

• Prayers at shrines

• Moving images in processions

Saints protecting crops

• St. Gregory of Ostia

• St. Isidore the Labourer

• St. Faustus the Labourer

Harvest thanksgiving